tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-57160481843873397032024-03-24T16:32:12.278-07:00Gie The IcemanWelcome To The Gie Iceman Zonehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08467823729991553473noreply@blogger.comBlogger30125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5716048184387339703.post-36374796937061011492010-06-18T01:01:00.000-07:002010-06-18T01:40:10.465-07:00Berkenalan dengan AJAXIstilah AJAX Asynchronous JavaScript And XML) dalam pengembangan web menjadi populer pada beberapa tahun belakangan ini. AJAX ini sendiri bukan merupakan bahasa pemrograman baru, AJAX hanya merupakan sebuah teknik pemanfaatan object XMLHttpRequest dengan javascript untuk berkomunikasi dengan server secara Asynchronous,dengan pemanfaatan object XMLHttpRequest ini kita dapat membuat proses berjalan secara background atau bekerja dibelakang layar sementara user dapat tetap berinteraksi dengan halaman web yang ada. Pemanfaatan tehnik Asynchronous ini jugalah yang telah mendorong pengembangan web menjadi lebih kaya atau banyak yang menulisnya dengan istilah pengembangan Rich Internet Application (RIA) atau WEB 2.0.<br /><br />AJAX pertama kali di perkenalkan oleh Jesse James Garrett pada tulisannya yang berjudul AJAX: A New Approach To Web Applications. Jesse James memberi istilah AJAX untuk singkatan dari Asynchronous JavaScript And XML, namun pada perkembangannya data yang dikomunikasikan secara Asynchronous tidaklah harus berupa XML data, kita mengunakan format data lain untuk dikomunikasikan secara Asynchronous dengan server seperti PLAIN TEXT FILE, HTML DATA atau juga berupa SWF data (Flash file).<br /><br />Sejarah singkat AJAX<br /> <br />Tehnik komunikasi Asynchronous dengan server sendiri pertama kali dikembangkan oleh microsoft pada tahun 1997, kemudian pertama kali XMLHttpRequest Object diperkenalkan pada IE5 (circa 1998) dan kemudian dipergunakan secara luas pada Outlook web access. Jesse James Garrett's kemudian memberikan istilah AJAX untuk tehnik Asynchronous ini pada salah satu tulisannya di tahun 2005. Dan hingga saat ini telah banyak yang mengimplementasikan tehnik ini dalam pengembangan web, sebagai contoh pengunaan AJAX dalam web application bisa dilihat pada beberapa link berikut:<br />z Google Map<br />z Flickr.com<br />z gmail.com<br />z google sugest<br />z yahoo.com<br />dan masih banyak lagi contoh lainnya yang dapat ditemukan pada aplikasi web saat ini.<br /><br />BERKENALAN DENGAN AJAX<br /> <br />Sebelum membahas panjang lebar tentang scripting dan coding,kita berkenalan dahulu dengan apa yang disebut dengan AJAX, siapa sebenarnya AJAX tersebut dan bagaimana<br />kelakuannya. AJAX bukan merupakan bahasa pemrograman baru, namun hanya sebuah istilah untuk tehnik pemanfaatan Javascript dalam mengontrol class object XMLHttpRequest untuk berkomunikasi dengan server kemudian merefresh/mengupdate content yang ada dalam halaman web tanpa melakuan Reload keseluruhan halaman web seperti pada metode Tradisional sebelumnya, AJAX sendiri merupakan singkatan dari "Asynchronous JavaScript And XML".<br /> <br />Asynchronous & Synchronous<br /> <br />Bagaimana AJAX bekerja? dan mengapa pemanfaatan AJAX ini membawa istilah baru pada pengembangan web sehingga muncul istilah WEB 2.0? dan ada beberapa istilah lain yang juga dapat ditemukan dengan menanfatan AJAX seperti Rich internet aplication (RIA).<br /> <br />Dari singkatan AJAX sebelumnya ditemukan istilah “Asynchronous”, sekarang kita bahas sedikit dahulu tentang istilah tersebut dalam pengembangan web. Jika ada tehnik Asynchronous maka juga terdapat tehnik Synchronous, apa sih perbedaan kedua tehnik tersebut dalam pengembangan web? Berikut sedikit gambaranya. Agar lebih mudah dipahami saya bahas dengan sedikit gambar berikut untuk proses<br />SYNCHRONOUS dalam pengembangan web yang telah lama digunakan sebelumnya.<br /> <br />Saat user berinteraksi dengan sebuah halaman web terdapat banyak pilihan link yang dapat ditemukan, dan saat link tersebut di click maka halaman web tersebut akan melakukan komunikasi dengan server melalui internet untuk meminta proses ke server (send Request) Selama server melakukan proses, user akan menunggu hasil proses tersebut.<br /> <br />Setelah server selesai melakukan proses yang diminta maka server akan mengembalikan hasil proses yang akan ditampilkan pada client webbrowser. Dalam proses synchronous ini user melakukan permintaan proses (request process) ke server dan menunggu hingga server mengembalikan hasil proses yang di minta, umumnya hasil proses dari server merupakan sebuah halaman web baru yang ditampilkan pada web browser user.<br /> <br />Pemanfaatan tehnik Asynchronous dengan Javascript ini dalam pengembangan web ini lebih dikenal dengan istilah WEB 2.0 (baca: web two point O). Dengan tehnik proses Asynchronous kita dapat membuat sebuah aplikasi web lebih kaya atau banyak yang menulis dengan istilah Rich internet aplication (RIA), kita dapat membiarkan user untuk tetap berinteraksi dengan halaman web yang ada selama proses request dilakukan dan selama server belum<br />mengembalikan hasil proses yang diminta. Dan saat hasil proses telah selesai kita hanya perlu mengupdate data halaman web yang telah ada, berikut gambaran dari proses kerja Asynchronous tersebut.<br /> <br />User berinteraksi dengan link‐link yang ada untuk meminta proses ke server, proses yang diminta akan dikirimkan secara background ke server, selama server belum mengembalikan data hasil proses, user dapat tetap bekerja dengan halaman web yang ada sebelumnya. Setelah server selesai melakukan proses, hasil proses tersebut akan dikirmkan kembali kepada web browser, saat data yang dikirimkan server telah diterima oleh webbrowser user maka data tersebut ditampilkan pada halaman web yang telah ada sebelumnya.<br /> <br />Disini terlihat semua proses komunikasi dengan server dilakukan secara background atau mungkin bisa dikatakan semua proses dilakukan Behind the Scene :)<br /> <br /> <br />XMLHttpRequest Object<br />Untuk dapat mengembangkan aplikasi web dengan tehnik AJAX ini kita perlu mengkombinasikan beberapa hal berikut:<br /> <br />z Javascript untuk membuat object XMLHttpRequest yang kita gunakan untuk berkomunikasi dengan server secara behind the scene.<br /> <br />z DOM (Document Object Model), hasil proses yang diterima akan kita tampilkan dengan memanipulasi object DOM yang telah kita persiapkan sebelumnya untuk menampilkan data hasil proses yang diberikan server.<br />z XML (eXtensible Markup Language) format data yang dikembalikan oleh server, data<br />XML ini siap dibaca dan ditampilkan untuk mengupdate content pada halaman web.<br />secara sederhana kita akan memanfaatkan beberapa kombinasi diatas untuk membuat aplikasi web dengan tehnik AJAX ini, namun kita masih dapat mengembangkannya lebih lanjut setelah mengetahui proses kerja dari tehnik AJAX ini.<br /> <br />Kelebihan utama AJAX sendiri terletak pada pemanfaatan class object XMLHttpRequest untuk berkomunikasi dengan Web Server secara background dalam melakukan request. Saat ini terdapat banyak aplikasi web browser, dan yang agak sedikit menyebalkan adalah karena masing‐masing browser mempunyai standart dan cara berbeda untuk membuat object XMLHttpRequest ini.<br /> <br />Untuk dapat berjalan dengan baik pada semua browser kita perlu menyiapkan beberapa kondisi untuk mendeteksi web browser yang digunakan oleh user, dan kemudian membuat object XMLHttpRequest tersebut sesuai web browser yang digunakan.<br /><br /><br /><br />Bahan bacaan<br /><br />a) AJAX: A New Approch To Web Applications http://www.adaptivepath.com/publications/essays/archives/000385.php<br />b) Mathew Ernisse: Build your own AJAX web application http://www.sitepoint.com/launch/53fc13<br /><br /><br />Referensi<br />a) www.w3c.org<br />b) Marini, Joe (2005): Developing AJAX aplication<br />c) Morgan, Kaufman (2007): Unleashing WEB 2.0, from concept to creativity<br />d) Babin, Leen (2007): Beginning Ajax with PHP: From Novice to Professional<br /> <br /><br /><br /><br />OPEN SOURCE AJAX FRAMEWORK<br />a) Dojo : www.dojotoolkit.com<br />b) Yahoo User Interface : http://developer.yahoo.com/yui/<br />c) Adobe spry : http://labs.adobe.com/technologies/spry/<br />d) Mochikit : http://www.mochikit.com<br />e) Qooxdoo.org : http://qooxdoo.org/Welcome To The Gie Iceman Zonehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08467823729991553473noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5716048184387339703.post-65788533565758548162010-03-03T09:22:00.000-08:002010-03-03T09:47:58.189-08:00Practice Test in class , at 18th February 2010<div style="text-align: justify;"><ol><li>The Armory Show, <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">held</span> in New York in 1913, was <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255); font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">a</span> important <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">exhibition</span> of <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">modern</span> European art. </li><li><span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">Ripe</span> fruit is often <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">stored</span> in a place <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255); font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">who</span> contains much carbon dioxide so that the fruit will not decay too <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">rapidly</span>.</li><li>In 1852 Massachusetts passed a law <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">requiring</span> all <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">children</span> from four <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">to</span> eighteen years <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255); font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">of old</span> to attend school.</li><li>The main purpose of <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">classifying</span> animals <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255); font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;">is</span> to show the most probable evolutionary relationship of the <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">different</span> species to each <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">another</span>.</li><li>Matthew C Perry, a United States <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">naval</span> commander, <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255); font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;">gained</span> fame not in war <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">and</span> through <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">diplomacy</span>.</li><li>One of the most impressive <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">collections</span> of nineteenth-century European <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">paintings</span> in the United States <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">can</span> be found <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">to</span> the Philadelphia Museum of Art.</li><li>Three of every four <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">migrating</span> water <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">birds</span> in North America <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255); font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">visits</span> the Gulf of Mexico's <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">winter</span> wetlands.</li><li>Charleston, West Virginia, was named <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">for</span> Charles Clendenin, <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255); font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">who</span> son George <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">acquired</span> land at the junction of the Elk and Kanawha <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">rivers</span> in 1787.</li><li>Financier Andrew Mellon <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">donated</span> most of his <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">magnificent</span> art <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">collection</span> to the National Galerry of Art, where it is now <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255); font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">locating</span>.</li><li><span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">Soil </span>temperatures in Death Valley, California,<span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);"> near</span> the Nevada border, <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">have been known</span> to reach 90 <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255); font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;">of degrees</span> Celcius.</li><li><span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">When</span> the Sun, Moon, and Earth <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255); font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">are alignment</span> and the Moon <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">crosses</span> the Earth's orbital plane, a solar eclipse <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">occurs</span>.</li><li>Mary Cassatt's paintings of mothers <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">and</span> children are known for <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255); font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">its</span> fine linear <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">rhythm</span>, simple modelings, and harmonies of <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">clear colo</span>r.</li><li><span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255); font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">Plants synthesize</span> carbohydrates from water and carbon dioxide <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">with the aid</span> of energy i<span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">s derived</span> from<span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);"> sunlight</span>.</li><li><span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">The best</span> American popular music balances <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255); font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">a</span> powerful of emotions <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">of youth</span> with tenderness, <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">grace</span>, and wit.</li><li><span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">In the</span> nineteenth century, <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">women</span> used quilts to inscribe their <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">responses to</span> social, economics, and <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255); font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">politics</span> issues.</li><li>Fossils in 500-million-year-old rocks demonstrate <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">that</span> life forms <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">in</span> the cambrian period <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">were</span> mostly marine animals<span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255); font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"> capability</span> of secreting calcium to from shells.</li><li>Rainbows in the shape of <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">complete circles</span> are <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">sometimes seen</span> from airplanes because they <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255); font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">are not cutting</span> off by the <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">horizon</span>.</li><li><span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255); font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">Hot</span> at the equator causes <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">the air</span> to expand, <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">rise</span>, and flow <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">toward</span> the poles.</li><li>Although research has been on going <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">since</span> 1930, the <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">existence </span>of ESP-perception and communication without the <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">use</span> of sight, <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255); font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">hear</span>, taste, touch, or smell - is still disputed.</li><li><span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255); font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">As many as</span> 50 percent of the income from motion pictures <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">produced</span> in the United States <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">comes from</span> marketing the films <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">abroad</span>.</li><li>Sleep is <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">controlled</span> <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">by</span> the brain</span> and <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255); font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">associated by</span> characteristic <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">breathing</span> rhythms.</li><li>The walls <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">around</span> the city of Quebec, which was originally a <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255); font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">fort millitary</span>, still <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">stand</span>, making Quebec <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">the only</span> walled city in North America.</li><li>The manufacture of <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255); font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;">authomobile</span> was <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">extremely</span> expensive <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">until</span> assembly-line techniques <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">made</span> them cheaper to produce.</li><li>The ballad <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">is characterized</span> by informal diction, by a narrative largely <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">dependent on</span> action and dialogue, by thematic <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255); font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">intense</span>, and by<span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);"> stress</span> on repetition.</li><li>Eleanor Roosevelt <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">set</span> the standard against which the <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">wives</span> of <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">all</span> United States Presidents since <span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255); font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;">have evaluated</span>.<br /></li></ol><br />Caution :<br /><br />the word that bold is the answer of the sentence !!!!</div>Welcome To The Gie Iceman Zonehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08467823729991553473noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5716048184387339703.post-67797847080998143612010-02-28T05:29:00.000-08:002010-02-28T06:40:58.127-08:00KOMPUTASI MODERN<span style="font-weight:bold;">Komputasi</span><br /><br />Komputasi sebetulnya bisa diartikan sebagai cara untuk menemukan pemecahan masalah dari data input dengan menggunakan suatu algoritma. Hal ini ialah apa yang disebut dengan teori komputasi, suatu sub-bidang dari ilmu komputer dan matematika. Selama ribuan tahun, perhitungan dan komputasi umumnya dilakukan dengan menggunakan pena dan kertas, atau kapur dan batu tulis, atau dikerjakan secara mental, kadang-kadang dengan bantuan suatu tabel. Namun sekarang, kebanyakan komputasi telah dilakukan dengan menggunakan komputer.<br /><br />Secara umum iIlmu komputasi adalah bidang ilmu yang mempunyai perhatian pada penyusunan model matematika dan teknik penyelesaian numerik serta penggunaan komputer untuk menganalisis dan memecahkan masalah-masalah ilmu (sains). Dalam penggunaan praktis, biasanya berupa penerapan simulasi komputer atau berbagai bentuk komputasi lainnya untuk menyelesaikan masalah-masalah dalam berbagai bidang keilmuan, tetapi dalam perkembangannya digunakan juga untuk menemukan prinsip-prinsip baru yang mendasar dalam ilmu.<br /><br />Bidang ini berbeda dengan ilmu komputer (computer science), yang mengkaji komputasi, komputer dan pemrosesan informasi. Bidang ini juga berbeda dengan teori dan percobaan sebagai bentuk tradisional dari ilmu dan kerja keilmuan. Dalam ilmu alam, pendekatan ilmu komputasi dapat memberikan berbagai pemahaman baru, melalui penerapan model-model matematika dalam program komputer berdasarkan landasan teori yang telah berkembang, untuk menyelesaikan masalah-masalah nyata dalam ilmu tersebut.<br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Kelahiran</span><br /><br />Ilmu atau sains berdasarkan obyek kajiannya dibedakan antara Fisika, Kimia, Biologi dan Geologi. Ilmu dapat pula digolongkan berdasarkan metodologi dominan yang digunakannya, yaitu ilmu pengamatan/percobaan (observational/experimental science), ilmu teori (theoretical science) dan ilmu komputasi (computational science). Yang terakhir ini bisa dianggap bentuk yang paling baru yang muncul bersamaan dengan perkembangan kekuatan pemrosesan dalam komputer dan perkembangan teknik-teknik metode numerik dan metode komputasi lainnya.<br /><br />Dalam ilmu (sains) tradisional seperti Fisika, Kimia dan Biologi, penggolongan ilmu berdasarkan metodologi dominannya juga mewujud, yang ditunjukkan dengan munculnya bidang-bidang khusus berdasarkan penggolongan tsb. lengkap dengan jurnal-jurnal yang relevan untuk melaporkan hasil-hasil penelitiannya. Sebagai contoh dalam kimia, melengkapi kimia percobaan (experimental chemistry) dan kimia teori (theoretical chemistry), berkembang pula kimia komputasi (computational chemistry), seperti juga di bidang Biologi dikenal Biologi Teori (theoretical biology) serta Biologi Komputasi (computational biology), lengkap dengan jurnalnya seperti Journal of Computational Chemistry dan Journal of Computational Biology. Cara penggolongan yang digunakan berbeda dengan cara penggolongan lain berdasarkan obyek kajian, seperti penggolongan kimia atas Kimia Organik, Kimia Anorganik, dan Biokimia.<br /><br />Walaupun dengan titik pandang yang berbeda, ilmu komputasi sebagai bentuk ketiga dari ilmu (sains) telah banyak disampaikan oleh berbagai pihak, antara lain Stephen Wolfram dengan bukunya yang terkenal: A New Kind of Science, dan Jürgen Schmidhuber.<br /><br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Komputasi sains</span><br /><br />Komputasi sains merupakan salah satu cabang ilmu komputasi. Secara umum komputasi sains mengkaji aspek-aspek komputasi untuk aplikasi / memecahkan masalah di bidang sains lain, seperti fisika, kimia, biologi dan lain-lain.<br /><br />Di Indonesia sudah banyak pertemuan atau kegiatan ilmiah terkait dengan komputasi, tetapi umumnya lebih terkait dengan aspek teknologi informasi. Sedangkan kajian di komputasi sains masih sangat kurang. Hal ini tidak mengherankan karena komputasi sains lebih condong sebagai kajian teori murni, sehingga komunitasnya masih sangat terbatas seperti halnya fisika teori. Hanya ada satu kegiatan ilmiah yang terkait langsung dan fokus pada kajian komputasi sains, yaitu Workshop on Computational Science yang diadakan rutin setiap tahun oleh konsorsium yang tergabung dalam Masyarakat Komputasi IndonesiaTeknologi komputasi<br /><br />Teknologi komputasi (bahasa Inggris: computing) adalah aktivitas penggunaan dan pengembangan teknologi komputer, perangkat keras, dan perangkat lunak komputer. Ia merupakan bagian spesifik komputer dari teknologi informasi. Ilmu komputer adalah kajian dan ilmu dasar teori informasi dan komputasi serta implementasi dan aplikasinya dalam sistem komputer.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Bidang utama teknologi</span><br /> <br />Ilmu terapan Kecerdasan buatan • Teknologi keramik • Teknologi komputasi • Elektronika • Elektronika dan instrumentasi • Teknologi energi • Penyimpanan energi • Rekayasa fisika • Teknologi lingkungan • Tekni material • Mikroteknologi • Nanoteknologi • Teknologi nuklir • Rekayasa optik • Komputer quantum<br /> <br />Olahraga<br />dan Rekreasi Peralatan berkemah • Tempat bermain • Peralatan olahraga<br /> <br />Informasi<br />dan Komunikasi Teknologi informasi • Teknologi komunikasi • Grafis • Teknologi musik • Pengenalan suara • Teknologi visual<br /> <br />Industri Konstruksi • Teknik finansial • Manufaktur • Mesin • Pertambangan<br /> <br />Militer Bom • Senapan • Amunisi • Teknologi militer • Teknik kelautan • Pesawat tempur • Kapal perang • Peluru kendali • Tank<br /> <br />Rumah tangga Peralatan rumah tangga • Teknologi rumah tangga • Teknologi pendidikan • Teknologi pangan<br /> <br />Teknik Teknik material • Teknik finansial • Teknik kelautan • Teknik biomedis • Teknik keselamatan • Teknik kesehatan • Teknik penerbangan • Teknik perkapalan • Teknik pertanian • Teknik arsitektur • Rekayasa biologi • Teknik bioproses • Teknik biomedis • Teknik kimia • Teknik sipil • Teknik komputer • Teknik konstruksi • Teknik listrik • Teknik elektro • Teknik lingkungan • Teknik industri • Teknik mesin • Teknik mekatronika • Teknik metalurgi • Teknik pertambangan • Teknik nuklir • Teknik otomotif • Teknik perminyakan • Teknik perangkat lunak • Teknik struktur • Rekayasa jaringan<br /> <br />Kesehatan<br />dan Keselamatan Teknik biomedis • Bioinformatika • Bioteknologi • Informatika kimiawi • Teknologi perlindungan kebakaran • Farmakologi • Teknik keselamatan • Teknik kesehatan<br /> <br />Transportasi Angkasa luar • Teknik penerbangan • Teknik perkapalan • Kendaraan bermotor • Teknologi luar angkasa<br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">John Von Neumann, Sang Penggagas Komputasi Modern</span><br /><br />John von Neumann (1903-1957) adalah ilmuan yang meletakkan dasar-dasar komputer modern. Dalam hidupnya yang singkat, Von Neumann telah menjadi ilmuwan besar abad 21. Von Neumann meningkatkan karya-karyanya dalam bidang matematika, teori kuantum, game theory, fisika nuklir, dan ilmu komputer. Beliau juga merupakan salah seorang ilmuwan yang sangat berpengaruh dalam pembuatan bom atom di Los Alamos pada Perang Dunia II lalu.<br /><br />Von Neumann dilahirkan di Budapest, Hungaria pada 28 Desember 1903 dengan nama Neumann Janos. Dia adalah anak pertama dari pasangan Neumann Miksa dan Kann Margit. Di sana, nama keluarga diletakkan di depan nama asli. Sehingga dalam bahasa Inggris, nama orang tuanya menjadi Max Neumann. Pada saat Max Neumann memperoleh gelar, maka namanya berubah menjadi Von Neumann. Setelah bergelar doktor dalam ilmu hukum, dia menjadi pengacara untuk sebuah bank. Pada tahun 1903, Budapest terkenal sebagai tempat lahirnya para manusia genius dari bidang sains, penulis, seniman dan musisi.<br /><br />Von Neumann juga belajar di Berlin dan Zurich dan mendapatkan diploma pada bidang teknik kimia pada tahun 1926. Pada tahun yang sama dia mendapatkan gelar doktor pada bidang matematika dari Universitas Budapest. Keahlian Von Neumann terletak pada bidang teori game yang melahirkan konsep seluler automata, teknologi bom atom, dan komputasi modern yang kemudian melahirkan komputer. Kegeniusannya dalam matematika telah terlihat semenjak kecil dengan mampu melakukan pembagian bilangan delapan digit (angka) di dalam kepalanya.<br /><br />Setelah mengajar di Berlin dan Hamburg, Von Neumann pindah ke Amerika pada tahun 1930 dan bekerja di Universitas Princeton serta menjadi salah satu pendiri Institute for Advanced Studies.<br /><br />Dipicu ketertarikannya pada hidrodinamika dan kesulitan penyelesaian persamaan diferensial parsial nonlinier yang digunakan, Von Neumann kemudian beralih dalam bidang komputasi. Sebagai konsultan pada pengembangan ENIAC, dia merancang konsep arsitektur komputer yang masih dipakai sampai sekarang. Arsitektur Von Nuemann adalah komputer dengan program yang tersimpan (program dan data disimpan pada memori) dengan pengendali pusat, I/O, dan memori.<br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Komputasi Modern</span><br /><br />Komputasi bisa diartikan sebagai cara untuk menyelesaikan sebuah masalah dari inputan data dengan menggunakan algoritma.<br /><br />teknologi komputasi adalah aktivitas penggunaan dan pengembangan teknologi komputer, perangkat keras, dan perangkat lunak komputer. Ia merupakan bagian spesifik komputer dari teknologi informasi.<br /><br />Pencetus dari dasar – dasar komputasi modern pertama kali adalah John Von Neuman. Ia adalah ilmuwan yang meletakkan dasar – dasar komputasi modern. Semasa hidupnya Von Neumann telah menjadi ilmuwan besar abad 21 dengan meningkatkan karya – karyanya tidak hanya dalam bidang matematika, teori kuantum dan game theory, namun juga fisika nuklir dan ilmu komputer. Beliau juga salah seorang ilmuwan yang berpengaruh dalam pembuatan bom atom di Los Alamos pada perang Dunia II.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Sejarah Von Neumann</span><br /><br />Von Neumann dilahirkan di Budapest, Hungaria pada 28 Desember 1903 dengan nama Neumann Janos. Dia adalah anak pertama dari pasangan Neumann Miksa dan Kann Margit. Di sana, nama keluarga diletakkan di depan nama asli. Sehingga dalam bahasa Inggris, nama orang tuanya menjadi Max Neumann. Pada saat Max Neumann memperoleh gelar, maka namanya berubah menjadi Von Neumann. Setelah bergelar doktor dalam ilmu hukum, dia menjadi pengacara untuk sebuah bank. Pada tahun 1903, Budapest terkenal sebagai tempat lahirnya para manusia genius dari bidang sains, penulis, seniman dan musisi.<br />Von Neumann juga belajar di Berlin dan Zurich dan mendapatkan diploma pada bidang teknik kimia pada tahun 1926. Pada tahun yang sama dia mendapatkan gelar doktor pada bidang matematika dari Universitas Budapest. Keahlian Von Neumann terletak pada bidang teori game yang melahirkan konsep seluler automata, teknologi bom atom, dan komputasi modern yang kemudian melahirkan komputer. Kegeniusannya dalam matematika telah terlihat semenjak kecil dengan mampu melakukan pembagian bilangan delapan digit (angka) di dalam kepalanya.<br /><br />Setelah mengajar di Berlin dan Hamburg, Von Neumann pindah ke Amerika pada tahun 1930 dan bekerja di Universitas Princeton serta menjadi salah satu pendiri Institute for Advanced Studies.<br /><br />Dipicu ketertarikannya pada hidrodinamika dan kesulitan penyelesaian persamaan diferensial parsial nonlinier yang digunakan, Von Neumann kemudian beralih dalam bidang komputasi. Sebagai konsultan pada pengembangan ENIAC, dia merancang konsep arsitektur komputer yang masih dipakai sampai sekarang. Arsitektur Von Nuemann adalah komputer dengan program yang tersimpan (program dan data disimpan pada memori) dengan pengendali pusat, I/O, dan memori.<br /><br />berdasarkan beberapa definisi di atas, maka komputasi modern dapat diartikan sebagai suatu pemecahan masalah berdasarkan suatu inputan dengan menggunakan algoritma dimana penerapannya menggunakan berbagai teknologi yang telah berkembang seperti komputer.<br /><br />Dengan begitu waktu yang diperlukan untuk menemukan solusi atas masalah lebih cepat dan keakuratan dari selousi tersebut lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan komputasi terdahulu yang umumnya menggunakan pena dan kertas maupun kapur dan batu tulis atau dikerjakan dengan menggunakan bantuan tabel.<br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Sejarah Komputasi Modern</span><br /><br />Konsep dasar arsitektur komputer modern adalah konsep sebuah sistem yang menerima intruksi-intruksi dan menyimpannya dalam sebuah memory. Konsep ini pertama kali digagasi oleh John Von Neumann. Beliau di lahirkan di Budapest, ibukota Hungaria pada 28 Desember 1903 dengan nama Neumann Janos. Karya – karya yang dihasilkan adalah karya dalam bidang matematika, teori kuantum, game theory, fisika nuklir, dan ilmu komputer. Beliau juga merupakan salah seorang ilmuwan yang sangat berpengaruh dalam pembuatan bom atom di Los Alamos pada Perang Dunia II lalu. Kepiawaian John Von Neumann teletak pada bidang teori game yang melahirkan konsep automata, teknologi bom atom dan komputasi modern yang kemudian melahirkan komputer.<br /><br />Pengertian : Komputasi sebetulnya bisa diartikan sebagai cara untuk menemukan pemecahan masalah dari data input dengan menggunakan suatu algoritma. Komputasi merupakan suatu sub-bidang dari ilmu komputer dan matematika. Selama ribuan tahun, perhitungan dan komputasi umumnya dilakukan dengan menggunakan pena dan kertas, atau kapur dan batu tulis, atau dikerjakan secara mental, kadang-kadang dengan bantuan suatu tabel. Namun sekarang, kebanyakan komputasi telah dilakukan dengan menggunakan komputer. Komputasi yang menggunakan komputer inilah yang disebut dengan Komputasi Modern. Komputasi modern menghitung dan mencari solusi dari masalah yang ada, yang menjadi perhitungan dari komputasi modern adalah : 1. Akurasi (bit, Floating poin) 2. Kecepatan (Dalam satuan Hz) 3. Problem volume besar (Down sizing atau paralel) 4. Modeling (NN dan GA) 5. Kompleksitas (Menggunakan teori Big O).Welcome To The Gie Iceman Zonehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08467823729991553473noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5716048184387339703.post-76028798325599561142010-01-06T05:39:00.000-08:002010-01-06T05:40:49.446-08:00Pronouns<div class="feature"> <h1>Pronoun</h1> </div> <p>A <a name="pronoun"><strong>pronoun</strong></a> can replace a <a href="http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/nouns.html#noun">noun</a> or another pronoun. You use pronouns like "he," "which," "none," and "you" to make your <a href="http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/subjpred.html#sentence">sentences</a> less cumbersome and less repetitive.</p> <p>Grammarians classify pronouns into several types, including the personal pronoun, the demonstrative pronoun, the interrogative pronoun, the indefinite pronoun, the relative pronoun, the reflexive pronoun, and the intensive pronoun.</p> <h2><a name="perspron">Personal Pronouns</a></h2> <p>A <a name="personal pronoun"><strong>personal pronoun</strong></a> refers to a specific person or thing and changes its form to indicate <a href="http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/nounchar.html#persons">person</a>, <a href="http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/nounchar.html#number">number</a>, <a href="http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/nounchar.html#genders">gender</a>, and <a href="http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/nounchar.html#case">case</a>.</p> <h2><a name="subppron">Subjective Personal Pronouns</a></h2> <p>A <a name="subjective personal pronoun"><strong>subjective personal pronoun</strong></a> indicates that the pronoun is acting as the <a href="http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/subjpred.html#subject">subject</a> of the sentence. The subjective personal pronouns are "I," "you," "she," "he," "it," "we," "you," "they."</p> <p>In the following sentences, each of the <strong>highlighted</strong> words is a subjective personal pronoun and acts as the subject of the sentence:</p> <dl><dd><strong>I</strong> was glad to find the bus pass in the bottom of the green knapsack.</dd><dd><strong>You</strong> are surely the strangest child <strong>I</strong> have ever met.</dd><dd><strong>He</strong> stole the selkie's skin and forced her to live with him.</dd><dd>When <strong>she</strong> was a young woman, <strong>she</strong> earned her living as a coal miner.</dd><dd>After many years, <strong>they</strong> returned to their homeland.</dd><dd><strong>We</strong> will meet at the library at 3:30 p.m.</dd><dd><strong>It</strong> is on the counter.</dd><dd>Are <strong>you</strong> the delegates from Malagawatch?</dd></dl> <h2><a name="objppron">Objective Personal Pronouns</a></h2> <p>An <a name="objective personal pronoun"><strong>objective personal pronoun</strong></a> indicates that the pronoun is acting as an <a href="http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/objcompl.html#object">object</a> of a <a href="http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/verbs.html#verb">verb</a>, <a href="http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/vbcmpd.html#compound%20verb">compound verb</a>, <a href="http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/preposit.html#preposition">preposition</a>, or <a href="http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/phrfunc.html#infinitive%20phrase">infinitive phrase</a>. The objective personal pronouns are: "me," "you," "her," "him," "it," "us," "you," and "them."</p> <p>In the following sentences, each of the <strong>highlighted</strong> words is an objective personal pronoun:</p> <dl><dd>Seamus stole the selkie's skin and forced <strong>her</strong> to live with <strong>him</strong>.</dd></dl> <p>The objective personal pronoun "her" is the <a href="http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/objcompl.html#direct%20object">direct object</a> of the verb "forced" and the objective personal pronoun "him" is the object of the preposition "with."</p> <dl><dd>After reading the pamphlet, Judy threw <strong>it</strong> into the garbage can.</dd></dl> <p>The pronoun "it" is the direct object of the verb "threw."</p> <dl><dd>The agitated assistant stood up and faced the angry delegates and said, "Our leader will address <strong>you</strong> in five minutes."</dd></dl> <p>In this sentence, the pronoun "you" is the direct object of the verb "address."</p> <dl><dd>Deborah and Roberta will meet <strong>us</strong> at the newest café in the market.</dd></dl> <p>Here the objective personal pronoun "us" is the direct object of the compound verb "will meet."</p> <dl><dd>Give the list to <strong>me</strong>.</dd></dl> <p>Here the objective personal pronoun "me" is the object of the preposition "to."</p> <dl><dd>I'm not sure that my contact will talk to <strong>you</strong>.</dd></dl> <p>Similarly in this example, the objective personal pronoun "you" is the object of the preposition "to."</p> <dl><dd>Christopher was surprised to see <strong>her</strong> at the drag races.</dd></dl> <p>Here the objective personal pronoun "her" is the object of the infinitive phrase "to see."</p> <h2><a name="posspron">Possessive Personal Pronouns</a></h2> <p>A <a name="possessive pronoun"><strong>possessive pronoun</strong></a> indicates that the pronoun is acting as a marker of possession and defines who owns a particular object or person. The <a name="possessive personal pronouns"><strong>possessive personal pronouns</strong></a> are "mine," "yours," "hers," "his," "its," "ours," and "theirs." Note that possessive personal pronouns are very similar to <a href="http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/adjectve.html#possessive%20adjective">possessive adjectives</a> like "my," "her," and "their."</p> <p>In each of the following sentences, the <strong>highlighted</strong> word is a possessive personal pronoun:</p> <dl><dd>The smallest gift is <strong>mine</strong>.</dd></dl> <p>Here the possessive pronoun "mine" functions as a <a href="http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/objcompl.html#subject%20complement">subject complement</a>.</p> <dl><dd>This is yours.</dd></dl> <p>Here too the possessive pronoun "yours" functions as a subject complement.</p> <dl><dd>His is on the kitchen counter.</dd></dl> <p>In this example, the possessive pronoun "his" acts as the subject of the sentence.</p> <dl><dd>Theirs will be delivered tomorrow.</dd></dl> <p>In this sentence, the possessive pronoun "theirs" is the subject of the sentence.</p> <dl><dd>Ours is the green one on the corner.</dd></dl> <p>Here too the possessive pronoun "ours" function as the subject of the sentence.</p> <h2><a name="demopron">Demonstrative Pronouns</a></h2> <p>A <a name="demonstrative pronoun"><strong>demonstrative pronoun</strong></a> points to and identifies a noun or a pronoun. "This" and "these" refer to things that are nearby either in space or in time, while "that" and "those" refer to things that are farther away in space or time.</p> <p>The demonstrative pronouns are "this," "that," "these," and "those." "This" and "that" are used to refer to <a href="http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/nounchar.html#singular">singular</a> nouns or <a href="http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/phrfunc.html#noun%20phrase">noun phrases</a> and "these" and "those" are used to refer to <a href="http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/nounchar.html#plural">plural</a> nouns and noun phrases. Note that the demonstrative pronouns are identical to <a href="http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/adjectve.html#demonstrative%20adjectives">demonstrative adjectives</a>, though, obviously, you use them differently. It is also important to note that "that" can also be used as a relative pronoun.</p> <p>In the following sentences, each of the <strong>highlighted</strong> words is a demonstrative pronoun:</p> <dl><dd><strong>This</strong> must not continue.</dd></dl> <p>Here "this" is used as the subject of the compound verb "must not continue."</p> <dl><dd><strong>This</strong> is puny; <strong>that</strong> is the tree I want.</dd></dl> <p>In this example "this" is used as subject and refers to something close to the speaker. The demonstrative pronoun "that" is also a subject but refers to something farther away from the speaker.</p> <dl><dd>Three customers wanted <strong>these</strong>.</dd></dl> <p>Here "these" is the direct object of the verb "wanted."</p> <h2><a name="intrpron">Interrogative Pronouns</a></h2> <p>An <a name="interrogative pronoun"><strong>interrogative pronoun</strong></a> is used to ask questions. The interrogative pronouns are "who," "whom," "which," "what" and the compounds formed with the <a href="http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/wordform.html#suffix">suffix</a> "ever" ("whoever," "whomever," "whichever," and "whatever"). Note that either "which" or "what" can also be used as an <a href="http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/adjectve.html#interrogative%20adjective">interrogative adjective</a>, and that "who," "whom," or "which" can also be used as a relative pronoun.</p> <p>You will find "who," "whom," and occasionally "which" used to refer to people, and "which" and "what" used to refer to things and to animals.</p> <p>"Who" acts as the subject of a verb, while "whom" acts as the object of a verb, preposition, or a <a href="http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/verbals.html#verbal">verbal</a>.</p> <p>The <strong>highlighted</strong> word in each of the following sentences is an interrogative pronoun:</p> <dl><dd><strong>Which</strong> wants to see the dentist first?</dd></dl> <p>"Which" is the subject of the sentence.</p> <dl><dd><strong>Who</strong> wrote the novel Rockbound?</dd></dl> <p>Similarly "who" is the subject of the sentence.</p> <dl><dd><strong>Whom</strong> do you think we should invite?</dd></dl> <p>In this sentence, "whom" is the object of the verb "invite."</p> <dl><dd>To <strong>whom</strong> do you wish to speak?</dd></dl> <p>Here the interrogative pronoun "whom " is the object of the preposition "to."</p> <dl><dd><strong>Who</strong> will meet the delegates at the train station?</dd></dl> <p>In this sentence, the interrogative pronoun "who" is the subject of the compound verb "will meet."</p> <dl><dd>To <strong>whom</strong> did you give the paper?</dd></dl> <p>In this example the interrogative pronoun "whom" is the object of the preposition "to."</p> <dl><dd><strong>What</strong> did she say?</dd></dl> <p>Here the interrogative pronoun "what" is the direct object of the verb "say."</p> <h2><a name="relpron">Relative Pronouns</a></h2> <p>You can use a <a name="relative pronoun"><strong>relative pronoun</strong></a> is used to link one <a href="http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/bldphr.html#phrase">phrase</a> or <a href="http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/bldcls.html#clause">clause</a> to another phrase or clause. The relative pronouns are "who," "whom," "that," and "which." The compounds "whoever," "whomever," and "whichever" are also relative pronouns.</p> <p>You can use the relative pronouns "who" and "whoever" to refer to the subject of a clause or sentence, and "whom" and "whomever" to refer to the objects of a verb, a verbal or a preposition.</p> <p>In each of the following sentences, the <strong>highlighted</strong> word is a relative pronoun.</p> <dl><dd>You may invite <strong>whomever</strong> you like to the party.</dd></dl> <p>The relative pronoun "whomever" is the direct object of the compound verb "may invite."</p> <dl><dd>The candidate <strong>who</strong> wins the greatest popular vote is not always elected.</dd></dl> <p>In this sentence, the relative pronoun is the subject of the verb "wins" and introduces the <a href="http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/claustyp.html#subordinate%20clauses">subordinate clause</a> "who wins the greatest popular vote." This subordinate clause acts as an <a href="http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/adjectve.html#adjective">adjective</a> modifying "candidate."</p> <dl><dd>In a time of crisis, the manager asks the workers <strong>whom</strong> she believes to be the most efficient to arrive an hour earlier than usual.</dd></dl> <p>In this sentence "whom" is the direct object of the verb "believes" and introduces the subordinate clause "whom she believes to be the most efficient". This subordinate clause modifies the noun "workers."</p> <dl><dd><strong>Whoever</strong> broke the window will have to replace it.</dd></dl> <p>Here "whoever" functions as the subject of the verb "broke."</p> <dl><dd>The crate <strong>which</strong> was left in the corridor has now been moved into the storage closet.</dd></dl> <p>In this example "which" acts as the subject of the compound verb "was left" and introduces the subordinate clause "which was left in the corridor." The subordinate clause acts as an adjective modifying the noun "crate."</p> <dl><dd>I will read <strong>whichever</strong> manuscript arrives first.</dd></dl> <p>Here "whichever" modifies the noun "manuscript" and introduces the subordinate clause "whichever manuscript arrives first." The subordinate clause functions as the direct object of the compound verb "will read."</p> <h2><a name="indpron">Indefinite Pronouns</a></h2> <p>An <a name="indefinite pronoun"><strong>indefinite pronoun</strong></a> is a pronoun referring to an identifiable but not specified person or thing. An indefinite pronoun conveys the idea of all, any, none, or some.</p> <p>The most common indefinite pronouns are "all," "another," "any," "anybody," "anyone," "anything," "each," "everybody," "everyone," "everything," "few," "many," "nobody," "none," "one," "several," "some," "somebody," and "someone." Note that some indefinite pronouns can also be used as <a href="http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/adjectve.html#indefinite%20adjective">indefinite adjectives</a>.</p> <p>The <strong>highlighted</strong> words in the following sentences are indefinite pronouns:</p> <dl><dd><strong>Many</strong> were invited to the lunch but only twelve showed up.</dd></dl> <p>Here "many" acts as the subject of the compound verb "were invited."</p> <dl><dd>The office had been searched and <strong>everything</strong> was thrown onto the floor.</dd></dl> <p>In this example, "everything" acts as a subject of the compound verb "was thrown."</p> <dl><dd>We donated <strong>everything</strong> we found in the attic to the woman's shelter garage sale.</dd></dl> <p>In this sentence, "everything" is the direct object of theverb "donated."</p> <dl><dd>Although they looked everywhere for extra copies of the magazine, they found <strong>none</strong>.</dd></dl> <p>Here too the indefinite pronoun functions as a direct object: "none" is the direct object of "found."</p> <dl><dd>Make sure you give <strong>everyone</strong> a copy of the amended bylaws.</dd></dl> <p>In this example, "everyone" is the <a href="http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/objcompl.html#indirect%20object">indirect object</a> of the verb "give" -- the direct object is the noun phrase "a copy of the amended bylaws."</p> <dl><dd>Give a registration package to <strong>each</strong>.</dd></dl> <p>Here "each" is the object of the preposition "to."</p> <h2><a name="reflpron">Reflexive Pronouns</a></h2> <p>You can use a <a name="reflexive pronoun"><strong>reflexive pronoun</strong></a> to refer back to the subject of the clause or sentence.</p> <p>The reflexive pronouns are "myself," "yourself," "herself," "himself," "itself," "ourselves," "yourselves," and "themselves." Note each of these can also act as an intensive pronoun.</p> <p>Each of the <strong>highlighted</strong> words in the following sentences is a reflexive pronoun:</p> <dl><dd>Diabetics give <strong>themselves</strong> insulin shots several times a day.</dd><dd>The Dean often does the photocopying <strong>herself</strong> so that the secretaries can do more important work.</dd><dd>After the party, I asked <strong>myself</strong> why I had faxed invitations to everyone in my office building.</dd><dd>Richard usually remembered to send a copy of his e-mail to <strong>himself</strong>.</dd><dd>Although the landlord promised to paint the apartment, we ended up doing it <strong>ourselves</strong>.</dd></dl> <h2><a name="intspron">Intensive Pronouns</a></h2> <p>An <a name="intensive pronoun"><strong>intensive pronoun</strong></a> is a pronoun used to emphasise its <a href="http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/pronref.html#antecedents">antecedent</a>. Intensive pronouns are identical in form to reflexive pronouns.</p> <p>The <strong>highlighted</strong> words in the following sentences are intensive pronouns:</p> <dl><dd>I <strong>myself</strong> believe that aliens should abduct my sister.</dd><dd>The Prime Minister <strong>himself</strong> said that he would lower taxes.</dd><dd>They <strong>themselves</strong> promised to come to the party even though they had a final exam at the same time.</dd></dl>Welcome To The Gie Iceman Zonehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08467823729991553473noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5716048184387339703.post-73419954505942421662010-01-04T00:35:00.000-08:002010-01-04T01:00:42.878-08:00Verb + to Infinitive<span style="font-weight:bold;">Infinitive</span><br /><br />In grammar, infinitive is the name for certain verb forms that exist in many languages. In the usual (traditional) description of English, the infinitive of a verb is its basic form with or without the particle to: therefore, do and to do, be and to be, and so on are infinitives. As with many linguistic concepts, there is not a single definition of infinitive that applies to all languages. Many Native American languages and some languages in Africa and Aboriginal Australia simply do not have infinitives or verbal nouns. In their place they use finite verb forms used in ordinary clauses or special constructions.<br /><br />In languages that have infinitives, they generally have most of the following properties:<br /><br />• In most uses, infinitives are non-finite verbs.<br />• They function as other lexical categories — usually nouns — within the clauses that contain them, for example by serving as the subject of another verb.<br />• They do not represent any of the verb's arguments (as employer and employee do).<br />• They are not inflected to agree with any subject<br />• They cannot serve as the only verb of a declarative sentence.<br />• They do not have tense, aspect, moods, and/or voice, or they are limited in the range of tenses, aspects, moods, and/or voices that they can use. (In languages where infinitives do not have moods at all, they are usually treated as being their own non-finite mood.)<br />• They are used with auxiliary verbs.<br /><br />However, it bears repeating that none of the above is a defining quality of the infinitive; infinitives do not have all these properties in every language, as it is shown below, and other verb forms may have one or more of them. For example, English gerunds and participles have most of these properties as well.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Infinitives in English</span><br /><br />English has three non-finite verbal forms, but by long-standing convention, the term "infinitive" is applied to only one of these. (The other two are the past- and present-participle forms, where the present-participle form is also the gerund form.) In English, a verb's infinitive is its unmarked form, such as be, do, have, or sit, often introduced by the particle to. When this particle is absent, the infinitive is said to be a bare infinitive; when it is present, it is generally considered to be a part of the infinitive, then known as the full infinitive (or to-infinitive), and there is a controversy about whether it should be separated from the main word of the infinitive. (See Split infinitive.) Nonetheless, modern theories typically do not consider the to-infinitive to be a distinct constituent, instead taking the particle to to operate on an entire verb phrase; so, to buy a car is parsed as to [buy [a car]], not as [to buy] [a car].<br /><br />The bare infinitive and the full infinitive are mostly in complementary distribution. They are not generally interchangeable, but the distinction does not generally affect the meaning of a sentence; rather, certain contexts call almost exclusively for the bare infinitive, and all other contexts call for the full infinitive.<br /><br />Huddleston and Pullum's recent Cambridge Grammar of the English Language (CGEL) does not use the notion of the infinitive, arguing that English uses the same form of the verb, the plain form, in infinitival clauses that it uses in imperative and present-subjunctive clauses.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Uses of the bare infinitive</span><br /><br />The bare infinitive is not used in as many contexts as the full infinitive, but some of these are quite common :<br /><br />• The bare infinitive is used as the main verb after the dummy auxiliary verb do, or most modal auxiliary verbs (such as will, can, or should). So, "I will/do/can/etc. see it."<br /><br />• Several common verbs of perception, including see, watch, hear, feel, and sense take a direct object and a bare infinitive, where the bare infinitive indicates an action taken by the main verb's direct object. So, "I saw/watched/heard/etc. it happen." (A similar meaning can be effected by using the present participle instead: "I saw/watched/heard/etc. it happening." The difference is that the former implies that the entirety of the event was perceived, while the latter implies that part of the progress of the event was perceived.)<br /><br />• Similarly with several common verbs of permission or causation, including make, bid, let, and have. So, "I made/bade/let/had him do it." (However, make takes a to-infinitive in the passive voice: "I was made to do it.")<br /><br />• With the word why. So, "Why reveal it?"<br /><br />• The bare infinitive is the dictionary form of a verb, and is generally the form of a verb that receives a definition; however, the definition itself generally uses a to-infinitive. So, "The word 'amble' means 'to walk slowly.'"<br /><br />• The bare infinitive form is also the present subjunctive form and the imperative form, although most grammarians do not consider uses of the present subjunctive or imperative to be uses of the bare infinitive.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Uses of the full infinitive</span><br /><br />The full infinitive (or to-infinitive) is used in a great many different contexts :<br /><br />• Outside of dictionary headwords, it is the most commonly used citation form of the English verb: "How do we conjugate the verb to go?"<br />• It can be used like a noun phrase, expressing its action or state in an abstract, general way. So, "To err is human"; "To know me is to love me". (However, a gerund is often preferred for this — "Being is doing" would be more natural than the abstract and philosophical sounding "To be is to do.")<br />• It can be used like an adjective or adverb, expressing purpose or intent. So, "The letter says I'm to wait outside", or "He is the man to talk to", or "[In order] to meditate, one must free one's mind."<br />• In either of the above uses, it can often be given a subject using the preposition for: "For him to fail now would be a great disappointment"; "[In order] for you to get there on time, you'll need to leave now." (The former sentence could also be written, "His failing now would be a great disappointment.")<br />• It can be used after many intransitive verbs; in this case, it generally has the subject of the main verb as its implicit subject. So, "I agreed to leave", or "He failed to make his case." (This may be considered a special case of the noun-like use above.) With some verbs the infinitive may carry a significantly different meaning from a gerund: compare I stopped to talk to her with I stopped talking to her, or I forgot to buy the bread with I forgot buying the bread.<br />• It can be used after the direct objects of many transitive verbs; in this case, it generally has the direct object of the main verb as its implicit subject. So, "I convinced him to leave with me", or "He asked her to make his case on his behalf." However, in some cases, the subject of the main clause is also subject of the infinitival clause, as in "John promises Mary to cook", where the cook is John (the subject of the main sentence), and not Mary (the object).<br />• As a special case of the above, it can often be used after an intransitive verb, together with a subject using the preposition for: "I arranged for him to accompany me", or "I waited for summer to arrive."<br /><br />When the verb is implied, some dialects will reduce the to-infinitive to simply to: "Do I have to?"<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">The infinitive with auxiliary verbs</span><br /><br />The auxiliary verb do does not have an infinitive — even though do is also a main verb and in that sense is often used in the infinitive. One does not say *I asked to do not have to, but rather, either I asked not to have to or I asked to not have to (but see split infinitive). Similarly, one cannot emphasize an infinitive using do; one cannot say, "I hear him do say it all the time."<br /><br />Nonetheless, the auxiliary verbs have (used to form the perfect aspect) and be (used to form the passive voice and continuous aspect) both commonly appear in the infinitive: "It's thought to have been a ceremonial site", or "I want to be doing it already."<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Defective verbs</span><br /><br />The modal auxiliary verbs, can, may, shall, will and must are defective in that they do not have infinitives; so, one cannot say, *I want him to can do it, but rather must say, I want him to be able to do it. The periphrases to be able to, to have to and to be going to are generally used in these cases.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Impersonal constructions</span><br /><br />There is a specific situation in which the infinitive is used like an "impersonal future tense", replacing "will". This is done through the construction :<br /><br /> to be + "to" + bare infinitive<br /><br />Grammatically, this is identical to the instructional "I am to wait outside" construction (above), but does not signify somebody having been issued an instruction; rather, it expresses an intended action, in the same way as "will". This "tense" is used extensively in news reports, eg. –<br /><br />• The Prime Minister is to visit the West Bank (active)<br />• Aid is to be sent to war-torn Darfur (passive)<br />This "future infinitive" construction is interesting in that it only has a future aspect to it in situations where the speaker is significantly distanced from the event. In cases where the subject of the sentence is not quite as distanced from the speaker, then the same construction takes on a sense of instruction or necessity (as in "he is to wait outside", or "he is to go to hospital").<br /><br />The same construction can be used in conditional clauses - If you are to go on holiday, then you need to work hard (or, conversely, if you want to...then you are to...).<br /><br />The impersonality aspect comes from the fact that the emotionless verb to be is used in the place of the more usual modal verbs which would normally connect the speaker to the statement. In this way, statements are given weight (as if some external force, rather than the speaker, is governing events).<br /><br />Conversely, however, the construction also provides an uncertainty aspect, since it frees the speaker from responsibility on their statement – in the phrase "John will go", for example, the speaker is almost advocating their certainty that John will, in fact, go; meanwhile, "the Prime Minister is to go" simply states the knowledge that the PM's going is in some way foreseen. (If John ends up not going, for example, the "will go" construction is negated, while the PM's "to go" construction would still hold true, since all it expresses is an expectation). In both cases, the knowledge is simply being reported (or pretends to be) from an independent source. In this sense, this impersonal to + verb construction can almost be seen as a fledgeling renarrative mood.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Verbs Followed by an Infinitive</span><br /><br />agree, aim, appear, arrange, ask, attempt, be able, beg, begin, care, choose<br />condescend, consent, continue, dare, decide, deserve, detest, dislike, expect, fail, forget, get, happen, have, hesitate, hope, hurry, intend, leap, leave, like, long, love, mean, neglect, offer, ought, plan, prefer, prepare, proceed, promise, propose, refuse, remember, say, shoot, start, stop, strive, swear, threaten, try, use, wait, want, wish.Welcome To The Gie Iceman Zonehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08467823729991553473noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5716048184387339703.post-13466960587092812162010-01-04T00:22:00.000-08:002010-01-04T00:23:51.758-08:00Verb + Gerunds<meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5Cugj2%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Font Definitions */ @font-face {font-family:Wingdings; panose-1:5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; mso-font-charset:2; mso-generic-font-family:auto; mso-font-pitch:variable; mso-font-signature:0 268435456 0 0 -2147483648 0;} /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0in; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} h2 {mso-margin-top-alt:auto; margin-right:0in; mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; margin-left:0in; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; mso-outline-level:2; font-size:18.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; font-weight:bold;} h3 {mso-margin-top-alt:auto; margin-right:0in; mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; margin-left:0in; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; mso-outline-level:3; font-size:13.5pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; font-weight:bold;} h4 {mso-margin-top-alt:auto; margin-right:0in; mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; margin-left:0in; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; mso-outline-level:4; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; font-weight:bold;} p {mso-margin-top-alt:auto; margin-right:0in; mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; margin-left:0in; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} pre {margin:0in; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; tab-stops:45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} span.mw-headline {mso-style-name:mw-headline;} @page Section1 {size:8.5in 11.0in; margin:1.0in 1.25in 1.0in 1.25in; mso-header-margin:.5in; mso-footer-margin:.5in; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} /* List Definitions */ @list l0 {mso-list-id:228077807; mso-list-template-ids:275693834;} @list l0:level1 {mso-level-number-format:bullet; mso-level-text:; mso-level-tab-stop:.5in; mso-level-number-position:left; text-indent:-.25in; mso-ansi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:Symbol;} @list l1 {mso-list-id:379787348; mso-list-template-ids:259428802;} @list l1:level1 {mso-level-number-format:bullet; mso-level-text:; mso-level-tab-stop:.5in; mso-level-number-position:left; text-indent:-.25in; mso-ansi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:Symbol;} @list l2 {mso-list-id:457801677; mso-list-template-ids:1517436806;} @list l2:level1 {mso-level-number-format:bullet; mso-level-text:; mso-level-tab-stop:.5in; mso-level-number-position:left; text-indent:-.25in; mso-ansi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:Symbol;} @list l3 {mso-list-id:595750602; mso-list-template-ids:717097828;} @list l3:level1 {mso-level-number-format:bullet; mso-level-text:; mso-level-tab-stop:.5in; mso-level-number-position:left; text-indent:-.25in; mso-ansi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:Symbol;} @list l4 {mso-list-id:629019568; mso-list-template-ids:425620478;} @list l4:level1 {mso-level-number-format:bullet; mso-level-text:; mso-level-tab-stop:.5in; mso-level-number-position:left; text-indent:-.25in; mso-ansi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:Symbol;} @list l5 {mso-list-id:634991690; mso-list-template-ids:-1943508770;} @list l5:level1 {mso-level-number-format:bullet; mso-level-text:; mso-level-tab-stop:.5in; mso-level-number-position:left; text-indent:-.25in; mso-ansi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:Symbol;} @list l6 {mso-list-id:679352606; mso-list-template-ids:2017510214;} @list l6:level1 {mso-level-number-format:bullet; mso-level-text:; mso-level-tab-stop:.5in; mso-level-number-position:left; text-indent:-.25in; mso-ansi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:Symbol;} @list l7 {mso-list-id:750464364; mso-list-template-ids:-1955069150;} @list l7:level1 {mso-level-number-format:bullet; mso-level-text:; mso-level-tab-stop:.5in; mso-level-number-position:left; text-indent:-.25in; mso-ansi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:Symbol;} @list l8 {mso-list-id:756291327; mso-list-template-ids:-1326186078;} @list l8:level1 {mso-level-number-format:bullet; mso-level-text:; mso-level-tab-stop:.5in; mso-level-number-position:left; text-indent:-.25in; mso-ansi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:Symbol;} @list l9 {mso-list-id:759252476; mso-list-template-ids:1160288114;} @list l9:level1 {mso-level-number-format:bullet; mso-level-text:; mso-level-tab-stop:.5in; mso-level-number-position:left; text-indent:-.25in; mso-ansi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:Symbol;} @list l10 {mso-list-id:886796342; mso-list-template-ids:384463662;} @list l10:level1 {mso-level-number-format:bullet; mso-level-text:; mso-level-tab-stop:.5in; mso-level-number-position:left; text-indent:-.25in; mso-ansi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:Symbol;} @list l11 {mso-list-id:920258840; mso-list-template-ids:1078105542;} @list l11:level1 {mso-level-number-format:bullet; mso-level-text:; mso-level-tab-stop:.5in; mso-level-number-position:left; text-indent:-.25in; mso-ansi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:Symbol;} @list l12 {mso-list-id:1164511520; mso-list-template-ids:1886920118;} @list l12:level1 {mso-level-number-format:bullet; mso-level-text:; mso-level-tab-stop:.5in; mso-level-number-position:left; text-indent:-.25in; mso-ansi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:Symbol;} @list l13 {mso-list-id:1194197070; mso-list-template-ids:-1738145126;} @list l13:level1 {mso-level-number-format:bullet; mso-level-text:; mso-level-tab-stop:.5in; mso-level-number-position:left; text-indent:-.25in; mso-ansi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:Symbol;} @list l14 {mso-list-id:1385565850; mso-list-template-ids:-1139638604;} @list l14:level1 {mso-level-number-format:bullet; mso-level-text:; mso-level-tab-stop:.5in; mso-level-number-position:left; text-indent:-.25in; mso-ansi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:Symbol;} @list l15 {mso-list-id:1507401361; mso-list-template-ids:-996641060;} @list l15:level1 {mso-level-number-format:bullet; mso-level-text:; mso-level-tab-stop:.5in; mso-level-number-position:left; text-indent:-.25in; mso-ansi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:Symbol;} @list l16 {mso-list-id:1865286928; mso-list-template-ids:-846695738;} @list l16:level1 {mso-level-number-format:bullet; mso-level-text:; mso-level-tab-stop:.5in; mso-level-number-position:left; text-indent:-.25in; mso-ansi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:Symbol;} @list l17 {mso-list-id:1869223931; mso-list-template-ids:1615102228;} @list l17:level1 {mso-level-number-format:bullet; mso-level-text:; mso-level-tab-stop:.5in; mso-level-number-position:left; text-indent:-.25in; mso-ansi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:Symbol;} ol {margin-bottom:0in;} ul {margin-bottom:0in;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--><span style="font-weight: bold;" class="mw-headline">Gerunds in English</span><o:p></o:p> <p>In English, the gerund is identical in form to the present participle (ending in <i>-ing</i>) and can behave as a verb within a clause (so that it may be modified by an adverb or have an object), but the clause as a whole (sometimes consisting of only one word, the gerund itself) acts as a noun within the larger sentence. For example: <b><i>Editing</i></b><i> this article is easy.</i><o:p></o:p></p> <p>In "Editing this article" (although this is traditionally known as a phrase, it is referred to as a non-finite clause in modern linguistics), the word "Editing" behaves as a verb; the phrase "this article" is the object of that verb. "Editing this article" acts as a noun phrase within the sentence as a whole, though; it is the subject of the verb "is."<o:p></o:p></p> <p>Other examples of the gerund:<o:p></o:p></p> <ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i>I like <b>swimming</b>.</i> (direct object)<o:p></o:p></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><b><i>Swimming</i></b><i> is fun.</i> (subject)<o:p></o:p></li></ul> <h3><span class="mw-headline">Verb patterns with the gerund</span><o:p></o:p></h3> <p>Verbs that are often followed by a gerund include <i>admit, adore, anticipate, appreciate, avoid, carry on, consider, contemplate, delay, deny, describe, detest, dislike, enjoy, escape, fancy, feel, finish, give, hear, imagine, include, justify, listen to, mention, mind, miss, notice, observe, perceive, postpone, practice, quit, recall, report, resent, resume, risk, see, sense, sleep, stop, suggest, tolerate</i> and <i>watch</i>. Additionally, prepositions are often followed by a gerund.<o:p></o:p></p> <p>For example:<o:p></o:p></p> <ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i>I quit smoking.</i><o:p></o:p></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i>We postponed making any decision.</i><o:p></o:p></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i>After two years of deciding, we finally made a decision.</i><o:p></o:p></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i>We heard whispering.</i><o:p></o:p></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i>They denied having avoided me.</i><o:p></o:p></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i>He talked me into coming to the party.</i><o:p></o:p></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i>They frightened her out of voicing her opinion.</i><o:p></o:p></li></ul> <h4><span class="mw-headline">Verbs followed by a gerund or a to-infinitive</span><o:p></o:p></h4> <p><b>With little change in meaning</b><o:p></o:p></p> <p><i>begin, continue, start; hate, like, love, prefer</i><o:p></o:p></p> <p>With <i>would</i>, the verbs <i>hate, like, love</i>, and <i>prefer</i> are usually followed by the <i>to</i>-infinitive.<o:p></o:p></p> <ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i>I would like to work there.</i> (more usual than <i>working</i>)<o:p></o:p></li></ul> <p>In these examples, if the subject of the verb is <b>not</b> the subject of the second verb, the second verb must be a gerund (instead of an infinitive).<o:p></o:p></p> <p>If one is watching sports on television, for example, one can react to the programs only as follows:<o:p></o:p></p> <ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i>I enjoy boxing.</i><o:p></o:p></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i>I am ambivalent to swimming.</i><o:p></o:p></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i>I love golfing.</i><o:p></o:p></li></ul> <p><b>With a change in meaning</b><o:p></o:p></p> <p><i>dread</i> and <i>hate</i>:<o:p></o:p></p> <p>These two verbs are followed by a <i>to</i>-infinitive when talking subjunctively (usually when using <i>to think</i>), but by a gerund when talking about general dislikes.<o:p></o:p></p> <ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i>I dread / hate to think what she will do.</i><o:p></o:p></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i>I dread / hate seeing him.</i><o:p></o:p></li></ul> <p><i>forget</i> and <i>remember</i>:<o:p></o:p></p> <p>When these have meanings that are used to talk about the future from the given time, the <i>to</i>-infinitive is used, but when looking back in time, the gerund.<o:p></o:p></p> <ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i>She forgot to tell me her plans.</i> (She did not tell me, although she should have.)<o:p></o:p></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i>She forgot telling me her plans.</i> (She told me, but then forgot having done so.)<o:p></o:p></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i>I remembered to go to work.</i> (I remembered that I needed to go to work, and so I did.)<o:p></o:p></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i>I remembered going to work.</i> (I remembered that I went to work.)<o:p></o:p></li></ul> <p><i>cannot bear</i>:<o:p></o:p></p> <ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i>I cannot bear to see you suffer like this.</i> (You are suffering now.)<o:p></o:p></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i>I cannot bear being pushed around in crowds.</i> (I never like that.)<o:p></o:p></li></ul> <p><i>go on</i>:<o:p></o:p></p> <ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i>After winning the semi-finals, he went on to play in the finals.</i> (He completed the semi-finals and later played in the finals.)<o:p></o:p></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i>He went on giggling, not having noticed the teacher enter.</i> (He continued doing so.)<o:p></o:p></li></ul> <p><i>mean</i>:<o:p></o:p></p> <ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i>I did not mean to scare you off.</i> (I did not intend to scare you off.)<o:p></o:p></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i>Taking a new job in the city meant leaving behind her familiar surroundings.</i> (If she took the job, she would have to leave behind her familiar surroundings.)<o:p></o:p></li></ul> <p><i>advise, recommend</i> and <i>forbid</i>:<o:p></o:p></p> <p>These are followed by a <i>to</i>-infinitive when there is an object as well, but by a gerund otherwise.<o:p></o:p></p> <ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i>The police advised us not to enter the building, for a murder had occurred.</i> (<i>Us</i> is the object of <i>advised</i>.)<o:p></o:p></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i>The police advised against our entering the building.</i> (<i>Our</i> is used for the gerund <i>entering</i>.)<o:p></o:p></li></ul> <p><i>consider, contemplate</i> and <i>recommend</i>:<o:p></o:p></p> <p>These verbs are followed by a <i>to</i>-infinitive only in the passive or with an object pronoun.<o:p></o:p></p> <ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i>People consider her to be the best.</i> – <i>She is considered to be the best.</i><o:p></o:p></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i>I am considering sleeping over, if you do not mind.</i><o:p></o:p></li></ul> <p><i>regret</i>:<o:p></o:p></p> <ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i>We regret to inform you that you have failed your exam.</i> (polite or formal form of apology)<o:p></o:p></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i>I very much regret saying what I said.</i> (I wish that I had not said that.)<o:p></o:p></li></ul> <p><i>try</i>:<o:p></o:p></p> <p>When a <i>to</i>-infinitive is used, the subject is shown to make an effort at something, attempt or endeavor to do something. If a gerund is used, the subject is shown to attempt to do something in testing to see what might happen.<o:p></o:p></p> <ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i>Please try to remember to post my letter.</i><o:p></o:p></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i>I have tried being stern, but to no avail.</i><o:p></o:p></li></ul> <h4><span class="mw-headline">Gerunds preceded by a genitive</span><o:p></o:p></h4> <p>Because of its noun properties, the genitive (possessive case) is preferred for a noun or pronoun preceding a gerund.<o:p></o:p></p> <ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i>We enjoyed their</i> [genitive] <i>singing.</i><o:p></o:p></li></ul> <p>This usage is preferred in formal writing or speaking. The objective case is often used in place of the possessive, especially in casual situations:<o:p></o:p></p> <ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i>I do not see it making any difference.</i><o:p></o:p></li></ul> <p>Really, 'I do not see its making any difference' is the correct option.<o:p></o:p></p> <p>This may sound awkward in general use, but is still the correct manner in which to converse or write. And this form of gerund is applicable in all relative cases, for instance:<o:p></o:p></p> <pre><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>'He affected my going there.'<o:p></o:p></pre><pre><span style=""> </span>'He affected your going there.'<o:p></o:p></pre><pre><span style=""> </span>'He affected his/her/its going there.'<o:p></o:p></pre><pre><span style=""> </span>'He affected our going there.'<o:p></o:p></pre><pre><span style=""> </span>'He affected their going there.'<o:p></o:p></pre> <p>This is because the action, of doing or being, belongs, in effect, to the subject/object (direct or indirect) practising it, thus, the possessive is required to clearly demonstrate that.<o:p></o:p></p> <p>
<br />In some cases, either the possessive or the objective case may be logical:<o:p></o:p></p> <ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i>The teacher's shouting startled the student.</i> (<i>Shouting</i> is a gerund, and <i>teacher's</i> is a possessive noun. The shouting is the subject of the sentence.)<o:p></o:p></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i>The teacher shouting startled the student.</i> (<i>Shouting</i> is a participle describing the teacher. This sentence means <i>The teacher who was shouting startled the student.</i> In this sentence, the subject is the teacher herself.)<o:p></o:p></li></ul> <p>Either of these sentences could mean that the student was startled because the teacher was shouting.<o:p></o:p></p> <p>Using the objective case can be awkward if the gerund is singular but the other noun is plural. It can look like a problem with subject-verb agreement:<o:p></o:p></p> <ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i>The politicians' debating was interesting.</i><o:p></o:p></li></ul> <p>One might decide to make <i>was</i> plural so that <i>debating</i> can be a participle.<o:p></o:p></p> <ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i>The politicians debating were interesting.</i><o:p></o:p></li></ul> <pre><span style=""> </span>it may..<span style=""> </span>considered as a noun / pronoun..
<br />
<br /><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5Cugj2%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0in; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:8.5in 11.0in; margin:1.0in 1.25in 1.0in 1.25in; mso-header-margin:.5in; mso-footer-margin:.5in; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --></style><i><span style=";font-family:";font-size:12pt;" ></span></i><span style="font-weight: bold;">Example Verbs Followes by a Gerund</span> : admit, advise, appreciate, avoid, can't help,
<br />complete, consider, delay, deny, detest, dislike, enjoy, escape, excuse, finish, forbid,
<br />get through, have, imagine, mind, miss, permit, postpone, practice, quit,recall,report,
<br />resent, resist, resume, risk, spend (time), suggest, tolerate, waste (time).
<br /><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5Cugj2%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0in; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:8.5in 11.0in; margin:1.0in 1.25in 1.0in 1.25in; mso-header-margin:.5in; mso-footer-margin:.5in; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} </style><o:p></o:p></pre><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5Cugj2%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="State"></o:smarttagtype><o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="place"></o:smarttagtype><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if !mso]><object classid="clsid:38481807-CA0E-42D2-BF39-B33AF135CC4D" id="ieooui"></object> <style> st1\:*{behavior:url(#ieooui) } </style> <![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0in; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} p {mso-margin-top-alt:auto; margin-right:0in; mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; margin-left:0in; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:8.5in 11.0in; margin:1.0in 1.25in 1.0in 1.25in; mso-header-margin:.5in; mso-footer-margin:.5in; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5Cugj2%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0in; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:8.5in 11.0in; margin:1.0in 1.25in 1.0in 1.25in; mso-header-margin:.5in; mso-footer-margin:.5in; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]-->Welcome To The Gie Iceman Zonehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08467823729991553473noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5716048184387339703.post-10294661784119630002010-01-02T01:26:00.000-08:002010-01-02T02:00:02.243-08:00material for business english 1 final examThursday, 31 th December 2009<br />Exercise<br /><br />1. If you <span style="font-weight: bold;">don't register</span> before <span style="font-weight: bold;">the last day</span> of regular registration, you would<br /> A B <br /><span style="font-weight: bold;"> pay</span> <span style="font-weight: bold;">a late fee</span>.<br /> C D<br /> * Answer : A, the correct answer is <span style="font-weight: bold;">didn't register</span>.<br /><br />2. Basal body of temperature <span style="font-weight: bold;">refer</span> to <span style="font-weight: bold;">the lowest</span> temperature of <span style="font-weight: bold;">a healthy</span><br /> A B C<br /> individual during <span style="font-weight: bold;">waiting</span> hours.<br /> D<br /> * Answer : A, the correct answer is <span style="font-weight: bold;">refers</span>.<br /><br />3. If your friends came <span style="font-weight: bold;">to visit</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">will</span> they <span style="font-weight: bold;">stay</span> in a hotel or <span style="font-weight: bold;">at your house</span> ?<br /> A B C D<br /> * Answer : B, the correct answer is would.<br /><br />4. Our friends might <span style="font-weight: bold;">stopped</span> <span style="font-weight: bold;">to see</span> us <span style="font-weight: bold;">on their</span> way to California.<br /> A B C D<br /> * Answer : A, the correct answer is <span style="font-weight: bold;">stop</span>.<br /><br />5. <span style="font-weight: bold;">Water boil</span> at 212'F, and <span style="font-weight: bold;">freezes</span> at 32' F.<br /> A B C<br /> * Answer : B, the correct answer is <span style="font-weight: bold;">boils</span>.<br /><br />6. Many birds will, in the normal course of <span style="font-weight: bold;">their</span> migrations, <span style="font-weight: bold;">flies</span> more than<br /> A B<br /> three thousand miles <span style="font-weight: bold;">to reach</span> their winter <span style="font-weight: bold;">homes</span>.<br /> C D<br /> * Answer : B, the correct answer is <span style="font-weight: bold;">fly</span>.<br /><br />7. The sheepdog <span style="font-weight: bold;">is chased after</span> the sheep which <span style="font-weight: bold;">is heading over </span>the hill.<br /> A B C D<br /> * Answer : A, the correct answer is <span style="font-weight: bold;">chasing</span>.<br /><br />8. Before the report <span style="font-weight: bold;">is finalized</span> the information in <span style="font-weight: bold;">their</span> notes and <span style="font-weight: bold;">our</span> <span style="font-weight: bold;">must</span><br /> A B C D<br /><span style="font-weight: bold;"> be proofed</span>.<br /> * Answer : C, the correct answer is <span style="font-weight: bold;">ours</span>.<br /><br />9. I really <span style="font-weight: bold;">miss</span> <span style="font-weight: bold;">to be</span> with my <span style="font-weight: bold;">close</span> friends in my <span style="font-weight: bold;">country</span>.<br /> A B C D<br /> * Answer : B, the correct answer is <span style="font-weight: bold;">being</span>.<br /><br />10. We <span style="font-weight: bold;">have been hoping going</span> to Mecca for many years.<br /> A B C D<br /> * Answer : D, the correct answer is <span style="font-weight: bold;">go</span>.<br /><br />11. Kayla ask Safira <span style="font-weight: bold;">forget</span> <span style="font-weight: bold;">to give</span> presentations of <span style="font-weight: bold;">their projects</span> yesterday.<br /> A B C D<br /> * Answer : A, the correct answer is <span style="font-weight: bold;">forgot</span>.<br /><br />12. Gina <span style="font-weight: bold;">have given</span> contribition to the developmnet of Islam <span style="font-weight: bold;">many times</span>.<br /> A B C D<br /> * Answer : A, the correct answer is <span style="font-weight: bold;">has</span>.<br /><br />13. <span style="font-weight: bold;">Every morning</span> fairuz <span style="font-weight: bold;">begin</span> <span style="font-weight: bold;">learning to walk</span>.<br /> A B C D<br /> * Answer : B, the correct answer is begins.Welcome To The Gie Iceman Zonehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08467823729991553473noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5716048184387339703.post-17831354511464062272010-01-01T08:52:00.000-08:002010-01-01T09:03:27.942-08:00Practise in describing company locationit should always be related to the job. Remember, although the employer is asking personal questions, they are still all related to "what can you bring to the company?" So, I usually give adjectives like reliable, loyal, etc., but make sure you back these with supporting examples. The most important thing is to make sure you boil it all down to presenting the answer in a way that it matches the things the employer is looking for.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Here is more advice :</span><br /><br />• Think about what kind of person you would like working for you and convey that to the employer. The best advice I can give to a job seeker is first aim high, well as high as you are capable of and realize the more you are willing to learn through experience or school is valuable. See yourself as a commodity. Be honest about your capabilities, if you don't know how to do something, say you don't know but let the employer know you are capable of learning and even give an example of something else you learned to do, maybe at another job or even a hobby. Most jobs will have to train you to their way and processes so don't undermine your capability and be proud of your accomplishments in life because they will only bring you up.<br /><br />• Just list off a few characteristics that you see yourself as having. Make all of the characteristics sound as positive as possible. This question is usually asked in order to gauge how a person perceives him- or herself. Just be honest. Are you outgoing? Shy? Diligent? Stubborn? Clever? Passionate? Level-headed? Easy-going? etc., etc. Don't stress too much. <br /><br />If you can't think of anything, think of a few people who know you and imagine how they would describe you. Pretend that your mom, a sibling, a good friend, a co-worker, and your spouse or significant other are all sitting down in a room making a list of your characteristics and then use the things you think they would say. <br /><br />• A job interview is NO TIME to be shy. Brag about yourself. It's expected. Brag about all of your good points and don't mention anything negative or anything you "can't do." Be positive and upbeat.<br /><br />• With complete honesty, don't try to make yourself better than you are, but don't yourself down, either.<br /><br />• Employers love to ask you questions that get to your perception of yourself. These may come in several forms - "How do you describe yourself"; "What are the qualities you possess that make you the best candidate for this job"; "What do you bring to this company that will make this company stronger" or a variation on these are commonly asked.<br /><br />• Your resume should already have a personal statement that discusses your qualities - in the most positive terms possible. Make sure you are familiar with your resume. VERY familiar. This is especially important if you didn't write it yourself, or if you have multiple resumes tailored to different positions.<br /><br />• Because this is such a common question, it may be a good idea to sit down ahead of time and list 4-5 qualities and examples in your previous experience where these qualities allowed you to overcome a problem or succeed at a task.<br /><br />• Remember, the interview is not a "game" <br />where you are trying to outsmart the interviewer to get the job. Your best strategy is to honestly sell yourself and your abilities to an employer to get a job that is a good fit for you, in a company that is a good fit for you. Outsmarting an interviewer to get a job in a company or position that ultimately leads to unhappiness on either or both sides is really outsmarting yourself.<br /><br />• Give a fair answer, tell them about your strong and weak points, but try to emphasize some of your qualities. For example, you could say that you are a hard-working, responsible, serious person, you are able to handle with people, able to work under stress, you are an easy learner. Don't be shy to talk about your creative "side".But be honest, admit that you also had some "bad moments" in your past jobs.<br /><br />• Your answer should be relevant to the job for which you are being interviews. Do not start going into your personal life. Keep your self-introduction professional!<br /> <br />• A person is defined in three ways: (1) who he is right now, (2) what he has done in the past, and (3) what he will become in the future.<br /><br />So, here is how you answer: (1) I am a [the job title for which you are applying or something very close.] (2) I have [how many years of experience] in [what field, what subject]. (3) I want to be [a job title that is a couple or a few levels above the current position for which you are applying in 5 to 10 years.] Close your answer with an affirmative question: "Is there anything else you want to know?"<br /><br />• You should be very straightforward and honest in replying to this question. The interviewer wants to check if what you have mentioned in your resume is correct or not.<br /><br />• I would answer the question based on who is interviewing me? If it's a sales manager/Technical Manager/Human resources manager? Depending on the person's field I'll have to mend the answer to please him... I feel that everyone's goals are different... so analyze that and then answer.<br /><br />• Answer this question with your 30-second "elevator speech" about yourself. The standard format for this speech is... "I am a (BLANK), who does (WHAT)." In my case... I am a PROJECT MANAGER, who PROVIDES QUALITY MANAGEMENT SOLUTIONS, Blah, Blah, Blah. (you get the idea).<br /><br />• Let me share what my recruiting office tells its candidates as they head out for that crucial face-to-face interview. When asked to "tell me about yourself," say, "I will gladly answer that question, but may I first ask you a question? (They ALWAYS say yes) So that I may better focus my answer, what are the issues you want me to address should you hire me? Once they share with you what they need to have you do, then proceed to address how your training, education, skills, and experience can best resolve these issues. By answering in this fashion, you have proven that you know how to focus ... and that you have what's needed to fix the issues they need to have fixed. It's always a winner ... and beats the heck out of, "Well, let's see, I was born on a small farm in Idaho ..."<br /><br />• I suggest you go into the interview with a few "talking points" about yourself, in other words things you want the interviewer to know about you. Then you try to hit those points in response to any questions you are asked, such as "tell us about yourself." Also be sure to have copies of your resume with you and offer them. In general, interviews go better when you spend them listening and don't talk. If the interviewer is just telling you about the job, you might have a good shot at it.<br /><br />• This is the chance for you to run down a 30-60 second sales pitch for yourself. The employer doesn't want to know that you like gardening or have four dogs. Here's where you start usually with your education and highlight selling points about your skills, experience and goals.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">More Suggestions :</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">It's one of the most frequently asked questions in an interview: Tell me about yourself. Your response to this request will set the tone for the rest of the interview. For some, this is the most challenging question to answer, as they wonder what the interviewer really wants to know and what information they should include.<br /></span><br /><br />The secret to successfully responding to this free-form request is to focus, script and practice. You cannot afford to wing this answer, as it will affect the rest of the interview. Begin to think about what you want the interviewer to know about you. <br /><br />List five strengths you have that are pertinent to this job (experiences, traits, skills, etc.). What do you want the interviewer to know about you when you leave? <br />Prepare a script that includes the information you want to convey. Begin by talking about past experiences and proven success.<br /><br />Next, mention your strengths and abilities : <br /><br />"My real strength is my attention to detail. I pride myself on my reputation for following through and meeting deadlines. When I commit to doing something, I make sure it gets done, and on time."<br /><br />Conclude with a statement about your current situation: <br /><br />"What I am looking for now is a company that values customer relations, where I can join a strong team and have a positive impact on customer retention and sales."<br /><br />Practice with your script until you feel confident about what you want to emphasize in your statement. Your script should help you stay on track, but you shouldn't memorize it -- you don't want to sound stiff and rehearsed. It should sound natural and conversational.<br /><br />Even if you are not asked this type of question to begin the interview, this preparation will help you focus on what you have to offer. You will also find that you can use the information in this exercise to assist you in answering other questions. The more you can talk about your product - you - the better chance you will have at selling it.<br /><br />Here are examples given by Contributors :<br /><br />• Hard worker, quick and eager learner, pays attention to detail. <br />• Example : Because of past experience and MBA degree, I am versatile and can perform well in many kinds of positions. Now I am looking for a challenging internship position in an established company. Basically, I am an experienced and flexible person can be successful at any kind of finance works. <br />• "Hardworking", "Task-oriented", "Solution-oriented", "Dependable", "Motivated", "Independent", "Team player" are all examples of good terms you can use. There are many more. <br />• I am a self-starter dedicated, hard-working person who works well with other, punctual, detail oriented a team player, great organizational and interpersonal skills. <br />• Describe yourself as outgoing, hardworking, dependable, eager to learn and grow professionally, etc. <br />• Fast paced, quick learner and very challenging. That's all they want to hear.<br />• This question is usually asked in order to gauge how a person perceives himself<br />• Just be honest. List off a few characteristics that you see yourself as having. Actually, a question of this kind is an ideal way to plug in everything we want to say about ourselves that we had leave out of the CV<br />• If you have attended a premier institution, say that the institution taught you much more than the degree it awarded you. Mention people who influenced you, talk about the books you like reading, your hobbies and your other interests<br />• Talk about your strengths. Mention an instance when you used your conflict resolution skills or selling skills or whatever. But make certain that it does not sound like blowing your trumpet. Mention these instances as a good learning experience<br />• Talk about your weaknesses, but make sure that they are positive weaknesses. For instance you could say that that you are a person that pays more attention to details than is warranted. You can openly confess a tendency to be impatient with team members who cannot carry their own weight, or who cannot contribute sufficiently<br />• Maintain the right tone in doing so. You do not want to give the interviewer the wrong impression or make him feel that you get impatient at times<br />• No one can do that for you as only you know yoursel<br />• If asked to then you should do so. Prepare yourself for personal questions such as thi<br />• Just list off a few characteristics that you see yourself as having. If it's for a job interview, make all of the characteristics sound as positive as possible. This question is usually asked in order to gauge how a person perceives him or herself. Just be honest. Are you outgoing? shy? diligent? stubborn? clever? passionate? level-headed?<br />• Don't stress too much. If you can't think of anything. Then think of a few people who know you and imagine how they would describe you. Pretend that your mom, a sibling, a good friend, a co-worker, and your spouse or significant other are all sitting down in a room making a list of your characteristics and then use the things you think they would say.<br />• Do not mention a bad quality if you are not working on it eg. what is your weakest quality? I am not very competent using computers but I am currently taking a evening course to rectify that/ i am going to.<br />• Most importantly back up what you say, why are you reliable?Welcome To The Gie Iceman Zonehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08467823729991553473noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5716048184387339703.post-81332430686013666522010-01-01T08:37:00.000-08:002010-01-01T08:51:56.721-08:00E-mailElectronic mail, often abbreviated as email, e.mail or e-mail, is a method of exchanging digital messages. E-mail systems are based on a store-and-forward model in which e-mail computer server systems accept, forward, deliver and store messages on behalf of users, who only need to connect to the e-mail infrastructure, typically an e-mail server, with a network-enabled device (e.g., a personal computer) for the duration of message submission or retrieval. Originally, e-mail was always transmitted directly from one user's device to another's; nowadays this is rarely the case.<br /><br />An electronic mail message consists of two components, the message header, and the message body, which is the email's content. The message header contains control information, including, minimally, an originator's email address and one or more recipient addresses. Usually additional information is added, such as a subject header field.<br /><br />Originally a text-only communications medium, email was extended to carry multi-media content attachments, which were standardized in with RFC 2045 through RFC 2049, collectively called, Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME).<br /><br />The foundation for today's global Internet e-mail service was created in the early ARPANET and standards for encoding of messages were proposed as early as 1973 (RFC 561). An e-mail sent in the early 1970s looked very similar to one sent on the Internet today. Conversion from the ARPANET to the Internet in the early 1980s produced the core of the current service.<br /><br />Network-based email was initially exchanged on the ARPANET in extensions to the File Transfer Protocol (FTP), but is today carried by the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), first published as Internet standard 10 (RFC 821) in 1982. In the process of transporting email messages between systems, SMTP communicates delivery parameters using a message envelope separately from the message (headers and body) itself.<br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Spelling</span><br /><br />There are several spelling variations that are occasionally the cause of vehement disagreement.<br /><br />email is the form officially required by IETF Request for Comments and working groups and is also recognized in most dictionaries. <br /><br />e-mail is a form still recommended by some prominent journalistic and technical style guides.<br /><br />Less common forms include eMail and simply mail.<br /><br />mail was the form used in the original RFC. The service is referred to as mail and a single piece of electronic mail is called a message.<br /><br />eMail, capitalizing only the letter M, was common among ARPANET users and early developers from Unix, CMS, AppleLink, eWorld, AOL, GEnie, and Hotmail.<br /><br />EMail is a traditional form that has been used in RFCs for the "Author's Address" and is expressly required "...for historical reasons...".<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Origin</span><br /><br />Electronic mail predates the inception of the Internet, and was in fact a crucial tool in creating the Internet.<br /><br />MIT first demonstrated the Compatible Time-Sharing System (CTSS) in 1961.It allowed multiple users to log into the IBM 7094 from remote dial-up terminals, and to store files online on disk. This new ability encouraged users to share information in new ways. E-mail started in 1965 as a way for multiple users of a time-sharing mainframe computer to communicate. Although the exact history is murky, among the first systems to have such a facility were SDC's Q32 and MIT's CTSS.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Host-based mailsystems</span><br /><br />The original email systems allowed communication only between users who logged into the one host or "mainframe", but this could be hundreds or thousands of users within a company or university. By 1966 (or earlier, it is possible that the SAGE system had something similar some time before), such systems allowed email between different companies as long as they ran compatible operating systems, but not to other dissimilar systems.<br /><br />Examples include BITNET, IBM PROFS, Digital All-in-1 and the original Unix mail.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">LAN-based mailsystems</span><br /><br />From the early 1980s networked personal computers on LANs became increasingly important - and server-based systems similar to the earlier mainframe systems developed, and again initially allowed communication only between users logged into the one server, but these also could generally be linked between different companies as long as they ran the same email system and (proprietary) protocol.<br /><br />Examples include cc:Mail, WordPerfect Office, Microsoft Mail, Banyan VINES and Lotus Notes - with various vendors supplying gateway software to link these incompatible systems.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Attempts at Interoperability</span><br /><br />• Novell briefly championed the open MHS protocol<br />• uucp was used as an open "glue" between differing mail systems<br />• The Coloured Book protocols on UK academic networks until 1992<br />• X.400 in the early 1990s was mandated for government use under GOSIP but almost immediately abandoned by all but a few — in favour of Internet SMTP<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">The rise of ARPANET-based mail</span><br /><br />The ARPANET computer network made a large contribution to the development of e-mail. There is one report that indicates experimental inter-system e-mail transfers began shortly after its creation in 1969.Ray Tomlinson is credited by some as having sent the first email, initiating the use of the "@" sign to separate the names of the user and the user's machine in 1971, when he sent a message from one Digital Equipment Corporation DEC-10 computer to another DEC-10. The two machines were placed next to each other. The ARPANET significantly increased the popularity of e-mail, and it became the killer app of the ARPANET.<br /><br />Most other networks had their own email protocols and address formats; as the influence of the ARPANET and later the Internet grew, central sites often hosted email gateways that passed mail between the Internet and these other networks. Internet email addressing is still complicated by the need to handle mail destined for these older networks. Some well-known examples of these were UUCP (mostly Unix computers), BITNET (mostly IBM and VAX mainframes at universities), FidoNet (personal computers), DECNET (various networks) and CSNet a forerunner of NSFNet.<br /><br />An example of an Internet email address that routed mail to a user at a UUCP host:<br /><br /> hubhost!middlehost!edgehost!user@uucpgateway.somedomain.example.com <br /><br />This was necessary because in early years UUCP computers did not maintain (or consult servers for) information about the location of all hosts they exchanged mail with, but rather only knew how to communicate with a few network neighbors; email messages (and other data such as Usenet News) were passed along in a chain among hosts who had explicitly agreed to share data with each other.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Message format</span><br /><br />The Internet e-mail message format is defined in RFC 5322 and a series of RFCs, RFC 2045 through RFC 2049, collectively called, Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions, or MIME. Although as of July 13, 2005, RFC 2822 is technically a proposed IETF standard and the MIME RFCs are draft IETF standards,[these documents are the standards for the format of Internet e-mail. Prior to the introduction of RFC 2822 in 2001, the format described by RFC 822 was the standard for Internet e-mail for nearly 20 years; it is still the official IETF standard. The IETF reserved the numbers 5321 and 5322 for the updated versions of RFC 2821 (SMTP) and RFC 2822, as it previously did with RFC 821 and RFC 822, honoring the extreme importance of these two RFCs. RFC 822 was published in 1982 and based on the earlier RFC 733.<br /><br />Internet e-mail messages consist of two major sections:<br /><br />• Header — Structured into fields such as summary, sender, receiver, and other information about the e-mail.<br />• Body — The message itself as unstructured text; sometimes containing a signature block at the end. This is exactly the same as the body of a regular letter.<br />The header is separated from the body by a blank line.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Message header</span><br /><br />Each message has exactly one header, which is structured into fields. Each field has a name and a value. RFC 5322 specifies the precise syntax.<br /><br />Informally, each line of text in the header that begins with a printable character begins a separate field. The field name starts in the first character of the line and ends before the separator character ":". The separator is then followed by the field value (the "body" of the field). The value is continued onto subsequent lines if those lines have a space or tab as their first character. Field names and values are restricted to 7-bit ASCII characters. Non-ASCII values may be represented using MIME encoded words.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Header fields</span><br /><br />The message header should include at least the following fields:<br /><br />• From: The e-mail address, and optionally the name of the author(s). In many e-mail clients not changeable except through changing account settings.<br />• To: The e-mail address(es), and optionally name(s) of the message's recipient(s). Indicates primary recipients (multiple allowed), for secondary recipients see Cc: and Bcc: below.<br />• Subject: A brief summary of the topic of the message.<br />• Date: The local time and date when the message was written. Like the From: field, many email clients fill this in automatically when sending. The recipient's client may then display the time in the format and time zone local to her.<br />• Message-ID: Also an automatically generated field; used to prevent multiple delivery and for reference in In-Reply-To: (see below).<br /><br />Note that the "To:" field is not necessarily related to the addresses to which the message is delivered. The actual delivery list is supplied separately to the transport protocol, SMTP, which may or may not originally have been extracted from the header content. The "To:" field is similar to the addressing at the top of a conventional letter which is delivered according to the address on the outer envelope. Also note that the "From:" field does not have to be the real sender of the e-mail message. One reason is that it is very easy to fake the "From:" field and let a message seem to be from any mail address. It is possible to digitally sign e-mail, which is much harder to fake, but such signatures require extra programming and often external programs to verify. Some Internet service providers do not relay e-mail claiming to come from a domain not hosted by them, but very few (if any) check to make sure that the person or even e-mail address named in the "From:" field is the one associated with the connection. Some Internet service providers apply e-mail authentication systems to e-mail being sent through their MTA to allow other MTAs to detect forged spam that might appear to come from them.<br /><br />RFC 3864 describes registration procedures for message header fields at the IANA; it provides for permanent and provisional message header field names, including also fields defined for MIME, netnews, and http, and referencing relevant RFCs. Common header fields for email include:<br /><br />• Bcc: Blind Carbon Copy; addresses added to the SMTP delivery list but not (usually) listed in the message data, remaining invisible to other recipients.<br />• Cc: Carbon copy; Many e-mail clients will mark e-mail in your inbox differently depending on whether you are in the To: or Cc: list.<br />• Content-Type: Information about how the message is to be displayed, usually a MIME type.<br />• In-Reply-To: Message-ID of the message that this is a reply to. Used to link related messages together.<br />• Precedence: commonly with values "bulk", "junk", or "list"; used to indicate that automated "vacation" or "out of office" responses should not be returned for this mail, eg. to prevent vacation notices from being sent to all other subscribers of a mailinglist.<br />• Received: Tracking information generated by mail servers that have previously handled a message, in reverse order (last handler first).<br />• References: Message-ID of the message that this is a reply to, and the message-id of the message the previous was reply a reply to, etc.<br />• Reply-To: Address that should be used to reply to the message.<br />• Sender: Address of the actual sender acting on behalf of the author listed in the From: field (secretary, list manager, etc.).<br />• X-Face: Small icon.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Message body</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Content encoding</span><br /><br />E-mail was originally designed for 7-bit ASCII. Much e-mail software is 8-bit clean but must assume it will communicate with 8-bit servers and mail readers. The MIME standard introduced character set specifiers and two content transfer encodings to enable transmission of non-ASCII data: quoted printable for mostly 7 bit content with a few characters outside that range and base64 for arbitrary binary data. The 8BITMIME extension was introduced to allow transmission of mail without the need for these encodings but many mail transport agents still do not support it fully. In some countries, several encoding schemes coexist; as the result, by default, the message in a non-Latin alphabet language appears in non-readable form (the only exception is coincidence, when the sender and receiver use the same encoding scheme). Therefore, for international character sets, Unicode is growing in popularity.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Uses</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">In society</span><br /><br />There are numerous ways in which people have changed the way they communicate in the last 50 years; e-mail is certainly one of them. Traditionally, social interaction in the local community was the basis for communication – face to face. Yet, today face-to-face meetings are no longer the primary way to communicate as one can use a landline telephone, mobile phones or any number of the computer mediated communications such as e-mail.<br /><br />Research has shown that people actively use e-mail to maintain core social networks, particularly when others live at a distance. However, contradictory to previous research, the results suggest that increases in Internet usage are associated with decreases in other modes of communication, with proficiency of Internet and e-mail use serving as a mediating factor in this relationship.With the introduction of chat messengers and video conference there are more ways to communicate.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Flaming</span><br /><br />Flaming occurs when a person sends a message with angry or antagonistic content. Flaming is assumed to be more common today because of the ease and impersonality of e-mail communications: confrontations in person or via telephone require direct interaction, where social norms encourage civility, whereas typing a message to another person is an indirect interaction, so civility may be forgotten. Flaming is generally looked down upon by Internet communities as it is considered rude and non-productive.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">E-mail bankruptcy</span><br /><br />Also known as "e-mail fatigue", e-mail bankruptcy is when a user ignores a large number of e-mail messages after falling behind in reading and answering them. The reason for falling behind is often due to information overload and a general sense there is so much information that it is not possible to read it all. As a solution, people occasionally send a boilerplate message explaining that the e-mail inbox is being cleared out. Stanford University law professor Lawrence Lessig is credited with coining this term, but he may only have popularized it.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">In business</span><br /><br />E-mail was widely accepted by the business community as the first broad electronic communication medium and was the first ‘e-revolution’ in business communication. E-mail is very simple to understand and like postal mail, e-mail solves two basic problems of communication: logistics and synchronization (see below). LAN based email is also an emerging form of usage for business. It not only allows the business user to download mail when offline, it also provides the small business user to have multiple users e-mail ID's with just one e-mail connection.Welcome To The Gie Iceman Zonehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08467823729991553473noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5716048184387339703.post-38756723513175489392010-01-01T04:32:00.000-08:002010-01-01T08:20:22.778-08:00Letter of Inquiry<span style="font-weight:bold;">Letter of Inquiry</span><br /><br />A letter of inquiry is a general term used for a number of different kinds of business letters addressed to a company. For example, applicants usually send a letter of inquiry, with an enclosed résumé (CV), to an employer for whom they would like to work. Companies send a letter of inquiry to their business partner when they need information about the goods they'd like to order. A letter of inquiry is usually short and to the point, containing only the request and a short introduction with an address, phone number or e-mail address from the sender's side.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">General Format</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Elements</span><br /><br />Business letters (in the United States) usually contain the following elements, in order:<br />• Sender's address & contact information.<br />• Date of writing.<br />• Subject.<br />• Recipient's name, title, company, & address.<br />• Salutation/greeting.<br />• Message (body of the letter).<br />• Valediction/closing.<br />• Sender's signature.<br />• Sender's name, title, company.<br /><br />In some situations, a business letter may also include the following optional information:<br /><br />• Enclosures (Encl.: or Enc.:).<br />• Carbon Copy Recipients (cc:).<br />• Reference Initials (of the typist, if different from original author of letter).<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Line Spacing</span><br /><br />In general, each element or paragraph of the letter is followed by a single blank line, except:<br /><br />• the date, followed by three or four blank lines.<br />• the final content paragraph, followed by two blank lines.<br />• the valediction/closing, followed by three or four blank lines (enough for the sender to sign the letter), and<br />• the sender's title, followed by two blank lines.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Font Formatting</span><br /><br />No special character or font formatting is used, except for the subject line, which is usually underlined.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Punctuation</span><br /><br />The salutation/greeting is generally followed by a comma, although in the United States a colon is often preferred. The valediction/closing is followed by a comma.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Example Template</span><br /><br />[SENDER'S NAME]<br />[SENDER'S ADDRESS]<br />[SENDER'S PHONE]<br />[SENDER'S E-MAIL]<br /><br />[DATE]<br /><br /><br />[RECIPIENT W/O PREFIX]<br />[RECIPIENT'S TITLE]<br />[RECIPIENT'S COMPANY]<br />[RECIPIENT'S ADDRESS]<br /><br />(Optional) Attention [DEPARTMENT/PERSON],<br /><br />Dear [RECIPIENT W/ PREFIX],<br /><br />Re: [SUBJECT]<br /><br />[CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT<br />CONTENT CONTENT. CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT<br />CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT. CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT<br />CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT.]<br /><br />[CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT<br />CONTENT CONTENT. CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT<br />CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT. CONTENT CONENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT<br />CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT.]<br /><br /><br />[VALEDICTION (Sincerely, Respectfully, Regards, etc.)],<br /><br /><br /><br /><br />[SENDER]<br />[SENDER'S TITLE]<br /><br /><br />Enclosures ([NUMBER OF ENCLOSURES])<br /><br />cc: [CC RECIPIENT], [CC RECIPIENT TITLE]<br />[CC RECIPIENT], [CC RECIPIENT TITLE]<br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Indentation Formats</span><br /><br />Business letters generally conform to one of four indentation formats: Block, Semi-Block, Modified Block, and Modified Semi-Block. Put simply, "Semi-" means that the first lines of paragraphs are indented; "Modified" means that the sender's address, date, and closing are significantly indented.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Block</span><br /><br />In a Block format letter, (1) all text is aligned to the left margin, (2) paragraphs are not indented.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Semi-Block</span><br /><br />In a Semi-Block format letter, (1) all text is aligned to the left margin, (2) paragraphs are indented.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Modified Block</span><br /><br />In a Modified Block format letter, (1) all text is aligned to the left margin, except for the author's address, date, and closing; and (2) paragraphs are not indented. The author's address, date, and closing are usually indented three inches from the left margin, but can be set anywhere to the right of the middle of the page, as long as all three elements are indented to the same position.<br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Modified Semi-Block</span><br /><br />In a Modified Semi-Block format letter, (1) all text is aligned to the left margin, except for the author's address, date, and closing; and (2) paragraphs are indented. The author's address, date, and closing are usually indented three inches from the left margin, but can be set anywhere to the right of the middle of the page, as long as all three elements are indented to the same position.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;"><br />Not same at all places</span><br /><br />The format of a letter is not same at all places. So if you are a school student, then don't fully accept this if your syllabus is different.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Example :</span><br /><br />CBSE Board (India)<br />The usual format (If I am writing)...<br />My Address<br />(leave a line)<br />Date (DD Month YYYY)<br />(Leave one line)<br />Receiver's Designation & Address(Can take 2 or more lines)<br />(leave a line)<br />Sub:-_______________________________________(Subject)<br />(leave a line)<br />Salutation"Sir"<br />(leave a line)<br />Body:<br /> Parah 1-What , Why and other initials<br />(Leave a line)<br /> Parah 2-Describe the problem<br />(Leave a line)<br /> Parah 3-Request for help or action<br />(leave a line)<br />Complementary Close "Yours Faithfully" "Abc" (my name)<br /><br /><br />• A letter of inquiry clearly and concisely describes: the project, its aims, its significance, its duration and the amount of funds required. The document should never exceed five pages. <br />• Generally they are 2-3 pages.<br />• The letter of inquiry should not include any additional supporting information such as videotapes, financial reports, annual reports. <br />• Letter confirming organization’s charitable/tax-exempt status may be required.<br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Components of a Letter of Inquiry</span><br /><br />• Opening paragraph.<br />• Statement of need/rationale. <br />• Organizational description/expertise.<br />• Description of the project (include timeline and outcomes).<br />• Budget request and information.<br />• Closing.<br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Opening Paragraph</span><br /><br />• Summary statement.<br />• Stand alone.<br />• Make it clear what you want the reader to do.<br />• Answer the following questions.<br />• What are you proposing to do.<br />• How much is being requested.<br />• Over what time period.<br />• Say if you are responding to an RFP.<br />• Keep the paragraph short.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Example of Opening Paragraph</span><br /><br />Syracuse University is pleased to submit a letter of inquiry to the Getty Trust Campus Heritage Grants for the completion of a variety of structural and building envelope condition surveys. Our goal is to develop a comprehensive condition assessment and preservation plan that will be the basis of future capital projects that will ensure the preservation of our historic structures. We estimate the cost of the project will be $190,000. “<br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Statement of Need</span><br /><br />• Who is affected by the problem.<br />• What factors, or causes, contribute to the existence of the problem.<br />• What can be done to ameliorate the problem. <br />• What your organization (and others) are doing to currently address the problem.<br />• What remains to be done.<br />• What consequences the target population will face if this need is not met.<br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Project Activity</span><br /><br />• Give a general overview of the activities involved. <br />• Highlight why your approach is novel and deserving of funding.<br />• List other collaborators. <br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Outcomes (1-2) paragraphs)</span><br /><br />• State what will be the specific outcomes achieved.<br />• Indicate how evaluation is part of the project – how will you know you’ve achieved these outcomes?<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Credentials</span> <br /><br />• Demonstrate why you are best equipped to carry out this activity.<br />• Put any historic background about the institution here.<br />• Organizational capacity to carry out proposed project<br />• Major recent accomplishments <br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Budget</span><br /><br />• State the total project cost and how much you will requesting <br />• Indicate broad categories of activities to be funded.<br />• Include other sources of funding, both cash and in-kind. Especially indicate what SU will contribute. Do not overlook the value of all in-kind contributions, including those of your collaborators.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Closing</span> <br /><br />• Offer to give any additional information the foundation might need.<br />• Give a contact name and contact information for foundation follow-up. <br />• Let them know that you will give them a call to follow up.<br />• Express appreciation for the reader’s attention. <br />• Ask, “May we submit a full proposal?”.<br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Inquiry Letter Example</span><br /><br />1102 West 30th<br />Lawrence, KS 66321<br />August 4, 19XX<br /><br />Dr. Maria Gomez-Salinas <br />Director of the Diabetes Clinic <br />St. David's Hospital <br />1000 Greenberg Lane <br />Wichita, KS 66780<br /> <br /><br />Dear Dr. Gomez-Salinas: <br /><br />I am writing you in hopes of finding out more about how the <br />new Glucoscan II blood glucose monitoring system, which a <br />representative at Lifescan informed me that your clinic is <br />currently using. <br /><br />Originally, I saw Lifescan's advertisement of this new <br />device in the January 19XX issue of Diabetes Forecast and <br />became very interested in it. I wrote the company and got <br />much useful information, but was recommended to write <br />several current users of the system as well. <br /><br />For a technical report that I am writing for a technical <br />writing class at Johnson County Junior College, I need some <br />help with the following questions: <br /><br /><br /> 1. How often does the Glucoscan II need to be calibrated in practical, everyday use conditions?<br /> 2. How accurate is the Glucoscan II compared to other similar systems that your patients have used?<br /> 3. What problems do your patients experience with this new device? <br /><br /><br /><br />The Lifescan representative indicated that your clinic is <br />one the leaders in implementing new technology for <br />diabetics, and therefore I am eager to hear from you. In <br />the report I will acknowledge your contributions, and I <br />will send you a copy of the completed report if you wish. <br /><br />Thank you for your time, and I hope to hear from you soon. <br /><br />Sincerely,<br /><br /><br /><br />Anita Teller <br />Student, Medical Technology<br />Johnson County Junior CollegeWelcome To The Gie Iceman Zonehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08467823729991553473noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5716048184387339703.post-23448666783972072842009-12-19T21:44:00.000-08:002009-12-20T00:05:29.770-08:00MemoMemo merupakan pesan ringkas, yakni pesan yang ditulis seseorang dengan singkat, jelas, dan mudah untuk dipahami. Menurut pemakaiannya, memo ada yang bersifat resmi dan bersifat pribadi (tidak resmi). Memo bersifat resmi dipakai sebagai surat pernyataan dalam hubungan resmi dari seorang pimpinan kepada bawahannya. Memo bersifat pribadi dipakai sebagai nota atau surat pernyataan tidak resmi antar teman, saudara, atau orang lain yang memiliki hubungan akrab.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Ciri-ciri</span><br /><br />1. Surat khusus yang dibuat khusus untuk keperluan dalam kantor atau organisasi<br />2. Dilihat dari peredarannya, sebuah kantor atau organisasi dapat menyampikan memo secara horizontal maupun secara vertikal<br />3. Penyampian secara horizotal merupakan penyampian memo kepada pihak yang memiliki jabatan satara<br />4. Penyampian secara vertikal merupakan penyampaian memo dari atasan kepada bawahan atau sebaliknya untuk mengingatkan atau memerintahkan sesuatu<br />5. Merupakan bentuk komunikasi yang berisi saran, arahan, atau penerangan mengenai sesuatu hal<br />6. Memiliki bagian surat yang lebih sederhana dibandingkan dengan surat resmi pada umumnya, terutama dalam isi surat.<br />7. Karena pedarannya yang terbatas, memo biasanya tidak mencantumkan identitas kantor, seperti nama kantor, nomor telepon, faksimili, dan kode pos, secara lengkap.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Ciri-ciri bentuk memo</span><br /><br />Bentuk memo terdiri atas dua bagian:<br />• Kepala Memo <br />o Penerima<br />o Pengirim<br />o Perihal dan tanggal pengimin<br />o Paraf dan nama terang pengirim<br />• Isi, penulis langsung menyampikan pesan atau perintah dalam kalimat pendek dan lugas.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Memo</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Audience and Purpose</span><br /><br />Memos have a twofold purpose: they bring attention to problems and they solve problems. They accomplish their goals by informing the reader about new information like policy changes, price increases, or by persuading the reader to take an action, such as attend a meeting, or change a current production procedure. Regardless of the specific goal, memos are most effective when they connect the purpose of the writer with the interests and needs of the reader. <br /><br />Choose the audience of the memo wisely. Ensure that all of the people that the memo is addressed to need to read the memo. If it is an issue involving only one person, do not send the memo to the entire office. Also, be certain that material is not too sensitive to put in a memo; sometimes the best forms of communication are face-to-face interaction or a phone call. Memos are most effectively used when sent to a small to moderate amount of people to communicate company or job objectives.<br /> <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Parts of a Memo</span><br /><br />Standard memos are divided into segments to organize the information and to help achieve the writer's purpose.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Heading Segment</span><br /><br />The heading segment follows this general format:<br /><br />TO: (readers' names and job titles)<br />FROM: (your name and job title)<br />DATE: (complete and current date)<br />SUBJECT: (what the memo is about, highlighted in some way)<br /><br />Make sure you address the reader by his or her correct name and job title. You might call the company president "Maxi" on the golf course or in an informal note, but "Rita Maxwell, President" would be more appropriate for a formal memo. Be specific and concise in your subject line. For example, "Clothes" as a subject line could mean anything from a dress code update to a production issue. Instead use something like, "Fall Clothes Line Promotion."<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Opening Segment</span><br /><br />The purpose of a memo is usually found in the opening paragraph and includes: the purpose of the memo, the context and problem, and the specific assignment or task. Before indulging the reader with details and the context, give the reader a brief overview of what the memo will be about. Choosing how specific your introduction will be depends on your memo plan style. The more direct the memo plan, the more explicit the introduction should be. Including the purpose of the memo will help clarify the reason the audience should read this document. The introduction should be brief, and should be approximately the length of a short paragraph.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Context</span><br /><br />The context is the event, circumstance, or background of the problem you are solving. You may use a paragraph or a few sentences to establish the background and state the problem. Oftentimes it is sufficient to use the opening of a sentence to completely explain the context, such as,<br /><br />"Through market research and analysis..."<br /><br />Include only what your reader needs, but be sure it is clear. <br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Task Segment</span><br /><br />One essential portion of a memo is the task statement where you should describe what you are doing to help solve the problem. If the action was requested, your task may be indicated by a sentence opening like, <br /><br />"You asked that I look at...."<br /><br />If you want to explain your intentions, you might say,<br /><br />"To determine the best method of promoting the new fall line, I will...." <br /><br />Include only as much information as is needed by the decision-makers in the context, but be convincing that a real problem exists. Do no ramble on with insignificant details. If you are having trouble putting the task into words, consider whether you have clarified the situation. You may need to do more planning before you're ready to write your memo. Make sure your purpose-statement forecast divides your subject into the most important topics that the decision-maker needs.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Summary Segment</span><br /><br />If your memo is longer than a page, you may want to include a separate summary segment. However, this section not necessary for short memos and should not take up a significant amount of space. This segment provides a brief statement of the key recommendations you have reached. These will help your reader understand the key points of the memo immediately. This segment may also include references to methods and sources you have used in your research.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Discussion Segments</span><br /><br />The discussion segments are the longest portions of the memo, and are the parts in which you include all the details that support your ideas. Begin with the information that is most important. This may mean that you will start with key findings or recommendations. Start with your most general information and move to your specific or supporting facts. (Be sure to use the same format when including details: strongest to weakest.) The discussion segments include the supporting ideas, facts, and research that back up your argument in the memo. Include strong points and evidence to persuade the reader to follow your recommended actions. If this section is inadequate, the memo will not be as effective as it could be.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Closing Segment<span style="font-weight:bold;"></span></span><br /><br />After the reader has absorbed all of your information, you want to close with a courteous ending that states what action you want your reader to take. Make sure you consider how the reader will benefit from the desired actions and how you can make those actions easier. For example, you might say,<br /><br />"I will be glad to discuss this recommendation with you during our Tuesday trip to the spa and follow through on any decisions you make."<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Necessary Attachments<span style="font-weight:bold;"></span></span><br /><br />Make sure you document your findings or provide detailed information whenever necessary. You can do this by attaching lists, graphs, tables, etc. at the end of your memo. Be sure to refer to your attachments in your memo and add a notation about what is attached below your closing, like this:<br /><br />Attached: Focus Group Results, January- May 2007<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Format</span><br /><br />The format of a memo follows the general guidelines of business writing. A memo is usually a page or two long, should be single spaced and left justified. Instead of using indentations to show new paragraphs, skip a line between sentences. Business materials should be concise and easy to read. Therefore it is beneficial to use headings and lists to help the reader pinpoint certain information. <br /><br />You can help your reader understand your memo better by using headings for the summary and the discussion segments that follow it. Write headings that are short but that clarify the content of the segment. For example, instead of using "Summary" for your heading, try "New Advertising Recommendations," which is much more specific. The major headings you choose are the ones that should be incorporated in your purpose-statement in the opening paragraph.<br /><br />For easy reading, put important points or details into lists rather than paragraphs when possible. This will draw the readers' attention to the section and help the audience remember the information better. Using lists will help you be concise when writing a memo.<br /><br />The segments of the memo should be allocated in the following manner:<br /><br />• Header: 1/8 of the memo<br />• Opening, Context and Task: 1/4 of the memo<br />• Summary, Discussion Segment: 1/2 of the memo<br />• Closing Segment, Necessary Attachments: 1/8 of the memo<br /><br />This is a suggested distribution of the material to make writing memos easier. Not all memos will be the same and the structure can change as you see necessary. Different organizations may have different formatting procedures, so be flexible in adapting your writing skills. <br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Sample Memo</span><br /><br />TO: Kelly Anderson, Marketing Executive<br /><br />FROM: Jonathon Fitzgerald, Market Research Assistant<br /><br />DATE: June 14, 2007<br /><br />SUBJECT: Fall Clothes Line Promotion<br /><br />Through market research and analysis, it has been discovered that the proposed advertising media for the new fall lines need to be reprioritized and changed. Findings from focus groups and surveys have made it apparent that we need to update our advertising efforts to align them with the styles and trends of young adults today. No longer are young adults interested in sitcoms as they watch reality televisions shows. Also, it is has become increasingly important to use the internet as a tool to communicate with our target audience to show our dominance in the clothing industry.<br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Internet Advertising</span><br /><br />XYZ Company needs to focus advertising on internet sites that appeal to young people. According to surveys, 72% of our target market uses the internet for five hours or more per week. The following list shows in order of popularity the most frequented sites:<br /><br />• Google<br />• Facebook<br />• Myspace<br />• EBay<br />• iTunes<br /><br />Shifting our efforts from our other media sources such as radio and magazine to these popular internet sites will more effectively promote our product sales. Young adults are spending more and more time on the internet downloading music, communicating and researching for homework and less and less time reading paper magazines and listening to the radio. As the trend for cultural icons to go digital, so must our marketing plans.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Television Advertising</span><br /><br />It used to be common to advertise for our products on shows like Friends and Seinfeld for our target audience, but even the face of television is changing. Young adults are tuning into reality television shows for their entertainment. Results from the focus group show that our target audience is most interested in shows like American Idol,The Apprentice, and America's Next Top Model. The only non-reality television show to be ranked in the top ten most commonly watched shows by males and females 18-25 is Desperate Housewives. At Blue Incorporated, we need to focus our advertising budget on reality television shows and reduce the amount of advertising spent on other programs.<br /><br />By refocusing our advertising efforts of our new line of clothing we will be able to maximize the exposure of our product to our target market and therefore increase our sales. Tapping into the trends of young adults will help us gain market share and sales through effective advertising.<br /><br />Attachments: Focus Group Results, January- May 2007; Survey Findings, January - April 2007<br /><br />This is a sample memo; facts and statistics used are fictional.Welcome To The Gie Iceman Zonehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08467823729991553473noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5716048184387339703.post-35390759340371214912009-12-19T21:03:00.000-08:002009-12-19T21:44:32.395-08:00Verb PhrasesVerb phrases atau frase verba adalah frase yang tersusun dari verba utama ditambah dengan auxiliaries, adverbs, adverb phrases (or clauses), prepositional phrases, atau object. Dalam kalimat, frase verba berfungsi sebagai predikat.<br /><br />Contoh:<br />- He was smoking.<br />- After she had learned to drive, Alice felt more independent. <br />- We will meet at the library at 3:30 p.m. <br />- Henry made my coach very proud. <br /><br />Dalam frase verba, verb selalu menjadi head, yang dapat disertai pre-modifiers dan/atau post-modifier.<br /><br />Jika terdapat pre-modifiers, bisa berupa kata negative (not/never) atau adverb phrase. Contoh :<br />- not say what he is doing.<br />- never needs money.<br />- He deliberately broke the window.<br /><br />Kebanyakan head verba harus diikuti oleh post-modifiers. Contoh :<br />- My son [made a cake].<br />- We [keep pigeons].<br />- I [recommend the fish].<br /><br />Verba yang memerlukan post-modifiers biasa disebut transitive verbs. Post-modifiers pada contoh diatas disebut juga objek langsung (direct object) atau komplemen (complement of the head).<br /><br />Sebaliknya, beberapa verba (intransitive verbs) digunakan tanpa objek langsung:<br />- Susan smiled.<br />- The professor yawned.<br /><br />Tetapi, banyak juga verba sebagai transitive dan intransitive, tergantung cara pemakaiannya dalam kalimat. Berikut adalah contoh penggunaan kedua bentuk verba tersebut:<br />- Mark smokes. (Intransitive)<br />- Mark smokes cigars. (Transitive)<br /><br />Objek atau komplemen yang melengkapi frase verba tidak hanya objek langsung (direct object) tetapi juga dapat berupa objek tak langsung (indirect object). Contoh :<br />- We [gave James a present]. <br /><br />Perhatikan juga contoh berikut yang menggunakan verba to be sebagai head:<br />- David [is a musician]<br />- Amy [is clever]<br />- Our car [is in the car park]<br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Verb phrase</span><br /><br />In constructed from a single verb; often, however, the verb phrase will consist of various combinations of the main verb and any auxiliary verbs, plus optional specifiers, complements, and adjuncts. For example, consider the following sentences:<br /><br />a. Yankee batters hit the ball to win their first World Series since 2000.<br />b. Mary saw the man through the window.<br />c. John gave Mary a book.<br /><br />Example (a) contains the verb phrase hit the ball to win their first World Series since 2000. Example (b) contains the main verb see, the noun phrase (NP) complement the man, and the prepositional phrase (PP) adjunct through the window. Additionally, example (c) contains the main verb gave, and two noun phrases Mary and a book, both selected by the verb in this case.<br /><br />Note that according to this definition, the verb phrase corresponds to what is commonly called the predicate.<br /><br />Up to the mid/late 1980s, it was thought that some languages lacked a verb phrase. These included languages with extremely free word order (so-called non-configurational languages, such as Japanese, Hungarian, or Australian aboriginal languages), and languages with a default VSO order (several Celtic and Oceanic languages). The current view in some varieties of generative grammar (such as Principles and Parameters) is that all languages have a verb phrase, while others (such as Lexical Functional Grammar) take the view that at least some of these languages do lack a verb phrase constituent.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Verb Phrases narrowly defined</span><br /><br />Verb phrases are sometimes defined more narrowly in scope to allow for only those sentence elements that are strictly considered verbal elements to form verb phrases. According to such a definition, verb phrases consist only of main verbs, auxiliary verbs, and other infinitive or participle constructions. For example, in the following sentences only the bolded words would be considered to form the verb phrase for each sentence:<br /><br />a. John gave Mary a book.<br />b. They were being eaten alive.<br />c. She kept screaming like a maniac.<br />d. Thou shalt not kill.<br /><br />This more narrow definition is often applied in functionalist frameworks and traditional European reference grammars. It is incompatible with the generative theory of the verb phrase, since the bolded strings are not constituents under standard analyses.Welcome To The Gie Iceman Zonehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08467823729991553473noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5716048184387339703.post-54087908334524114832009-12-16T22:55:00.000-08:002009-12-16T23:34:56.675-08:00Subject, Verb, Complement & Modifier<span style="font-weight:bold;">Verb</span><br /><br />A verb is a kind of word (see part of speech) that usually tells about an action or a state and is the main part of a sentence. Every sentence has a verb. In English, verbs are the only kind of word that changes to show past or present tense.<br />Every language in the world has verbs, but they are not always used in the same ways. They also can have different properties in different languages. For example, in some other languages (e.g., Chinese & Indonesian) verbs do not change for past and present tense. This means the definition above only works well for English verbs.<br />There are sixteen verbs used in Basic English. They are: be, do, have, come, go, see, seem, give, take, keep, make, put, send, say, let, get.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">History of the word verb</span><br /><br />The word verb originally comes from *were-, a Proto-Indo-European word meaning "a word". It comes to English through the Latin verbum and the Old French verbe.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Verb forms</span><br /><br />In English and many other languages, verbs change their form. This is called inflection. Most English verbs have six inflected forms (see the table), but be has eight different forms.<br /><br />Forms of English verbs<br />Primary forms past: walked She walked home<br /> 3rd singular present: walks She walks home<br /> plain present: walk They walk home<br />Secondary forms plain form: walk She should walk home<br /> gerund-participle: walking She is walking home<br /> past participle: walked She has walked home<br /><br />You should notice that some of the verb forms look the same. You can say they have the same shape. For example, the plain present and the plain form of walk have the same shape. The same is true for the past and the past participle. But these different forms can have different shapes in other verbs. For example, the plain present of be is usually are but the plain form is be. Also, the past of eat is ate, but the past participle is eaten. When you look for a verb in the dictionary, it is usually the plain form that you look for.<br /><br />An English sentence must have at least one primary-form verb. Each main clause can only have one primary-form verb.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Kinds of Verbs</span><br /><br />English has two main kinds of verbs: normal verbs (called lexical verbs) and auxiliary verbs. The difference between them is mainly in where they can go in a sentence. Some verbs are in both groups, but there are very few auxiliary verbs in English. There are also two kinds of auxiliary verbs: modal verbs and non-modal verbs. The table below shows most of the English auxiliaries and a small number of other verbs.<br />Kinds of English verbs<br />auxiliary verbs lexical vebs<br />modal verbs Can you play the piano? I fell<br /> I will not be there I didn't fall<br /> Shall we go I had breakfast.<br /> Yes, you may I'm playing soccer.<br /> You must be joking Must you make that noise?<br />non-modal verbs Have you seen him? Have you seen him?<br /> I did see it I did see it<br /> He is sleeping He is sleeping<br /><br />Auxiliary verbs also inflect for negation. Usually this is done by adding n't.<br />• You shouldn't be here.<br />• He isn't at home.<br />• We haven't started yet.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Tense, aspect, and mood</span><br /><br />Many people think that all different ways of using verbs are all different tenses. This is not true. There are three main systems related to the verb: tense, aspect, and mood.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Tense</span><br /><br />Tense is mainly used to say when the verb happens: in the past, present, or future. Some languages have all three tenses, some have only two, and some have no tenses at all. English and Japanese for example have only two tenses: past and present. Chinese and Indonesian verbs do not show tense. Instead they use other words in the sentence to show when the verb happens.<br /><br />English tenses<br />Present tense Past tense<br />She walks home She walked home<br />He runs quickly He ran quickly<br />I can swim well I could swim well<br />Do you live here? Did you live here?<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Aspect</span><br /><br />Aspect usually shows us things like whether the action is finished or not, or if something happens regularly. English has two aspects: progressive and perfect. In English, aspect is usually shown by using participle verb forms. Aspect can combine with present or past tense.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Progressive aspect</span><br /><br />English uses the gerund-participle, usually together with the auxiliary be to show the progressive aspect.<br />• I'm sleeping. (present progressive)<br />• He was studying English last night. (past progressive)<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Perfect aspect</span><br /><br />English uses the past participle, usually together with the auxiliary have to show the perfect aspect.<br />• I've seen him twice. (present perfect)<br />• I had lived there for three years. (past perfect)<br /><br />The past perfect can be used to express an unrealized hope, wish, etc.<br />• He had intended to bake a cake but ran out of flour.<br />• She had wanted to buy him a gift but he refused.<br /><br />After If, wish and would rather, the past perfect can be used to talk about past events that never happened.<br />• If only I had been born standing up!<br />• I wish you had told me that before.<br />• I would rather you had gone somewhere else.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Mood</span><br /><br />Finally, English mood is now usually shown by using modal verbs. In the past, English had a full mood system but that has almost completely disappeared. The subjunctive mood now uses the plain form. There is also a form of be that is used in conditionals to show that something is not true (e.g., If I were a bird, I would fly to California.)<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Sentence parts that go with verbs</span><br /><br />Certain parts of a sentence naturally come before verbs or after them, but these are not always the same for all verbs. The main sentence parts are: subject, object, complement, and modifier.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Subjects</span><br /><br />Almost all English sentences have subjects, but sentences that are orders (called imperatives) usually do not have any subjects. A subject usually comes before a verb, but it can also come after auxiliary verbs. In the following examples, the subject is underlined and the primary verb is in bold.<br />• We need you.<br />• The food was good.<br />• The small boy with red hair is sleeping.<br />• Can you see the car?<br />• Come here. (no subject)<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Objects</span><br /><br />Many verbs can be followed by an object. These verbs are called transitive verbs. In fact, some verbs must have an object (e.g., take), but some verbs never take an object (e.g., sleep). Verbs that do not take an object are called intransitive verbs. Some verbs can even have two objects. They are called ditransitive verbs. In the following examples, the object is underlined and the primary verb is in bold.<br />• I'm sleeping. (no object)<br />• I took the book from him.<br />• I gave him the book. (2 objects)<br />• I am happy. (no object)<br />• I became a teacher. (complement, no object)<br />• I slept in my bed (1 object)<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Complements</span><br /><br />Some verbs can or must be followed by a complement. These verbs are called linking verbs or copula. In the following examples, the complement is underlined and the verb is in bold.<br />• He is good.<br />• He is a boy.<br />• She became sick.<br />• She became a manager.<br />• It looks nice.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Modifiers</span><br /><br />Verbs can be modified by various modifiers, mainly adverbs. Note that verbs generally do not need modifiers; it's usually a choice. In the following examples, the adverb is underlined and the verb is in bold.<br /><br />• The boy ran quickly.<br />• The freely swinging rope hit him.<br /><br />Verbs also commonly take a variety of other modifiers including prepositions.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Differences between verbs and other kinds of words</span><br /><br />Sometimes a verb and another word can have the same shape. In these cases you can usually see the difference by looking at various properties of the words.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Verbs vs. adjectives</span><br /><br />Sometimes a verb and an adjective can have the same shape. Usually this happens with participles. For example, the present participle interesting and the adjective interesting look the same. Verbs are different from adjectives, though, because they cannot be modified by very, more, or most.For example, you can say "That is very interesting," so you know interesting is an adjective here. But you cannot say "My teacher is very interesting me in math" because in this sentence interesting is a verb. On the other hand, if you cannot change the 'be' verb to 'seem' or 'become', it is probably a verb.<br /><br />• He was isolated / He became isolated (isolated is an adjective)<br />• The door was opening / *The door became opening (opening is a verb)<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Verbs vs. nouns</span><br /><br />The gerund-particle sometimes looks like a noun. This is especially true when it is used as a subject, as in the following example:<br /><br />• Running is good for you.<br /><br />The main differences between these verbs and nouns are: modifiers, number, and object/complement<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Modifiers</span><br /><br />Verbs cannot generally be modified by adjectives and nouns cannot generally be modified by adverbs. So, in "Running regularly is good for you", running is a verb because it is modified by regularly, an adverb.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Number</span><br /><br />Verbs cannot change for number, so if you can make the word plural, it is a noun, not a verb. For example, "this drawing is nice" can change to "these drawings are nice", so drawing is a noun. But "drawing trees is fun" cannot change to "drawings trees is fun", so it is a verb here.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Object/complement</span><br /><br />Many verbs can take objects or complements, but nouns cannot. So, in "parking the car is hard", parking is a verb because it takes the object the car. But, if you say, "there's no parking", parking may be a noun because it does not have an object.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Verbs vs. prepositions</span><br /><br />Some verbs have become prepositions. Again, usually these share a shape with participles. Here are some examples:<br /><br />• Given the problems, I do not think we should go.<br />• We have many helpers, including John.<br />• According to the map, we are here.<br />• He went to hospital following' the fight.<br /><br />The main difference between verbs and prepositions is that verbs have a subject. Even if the subject is not written, you can understand what it is. Prepositions do not have a subject.Welcome To The Gie Iceman Zonehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08467823729991553473noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5716048184387339703.post-48779596688526321662009-11-18T01:05:00.001-08:002009-11-18T01:11:30.063-08:00Teknologi Terbaru Untuk Lidah bisa Kirim Input VisualCui,,, gue sekedar bagi ilmu aja neh,,, tau ga sih lo kalo lidah kita itu bisa digunakan untuk teknologi kirim input visual???? berikut penjelasannya : <br /><br />di sebuah Negara bernama WASHINGTON DC,Amerika Serikat ditemukan sebuah instrumen baru yang dikembangkan para ilmuwan untuk bisa mengirimkan input visual melalui lidah. Hal ini membantu tunanetra dapat merasakan dan mengenali beragam hal yang berada di sekitar mereka.<br /><br />Live Science, Sabtu (29/8/2009) melansir, perangkat bernama <span style="font-weight:bold;">BrainPort<span style="font-style:italic;"></span></span> ini ditempatkan pada lidah layaknya seseorang mengulum permen lolipop. Alat ini mengambil informasi yang dikumpulkan oleh sebuah kamera digital yang terpasang pada sepasang kaca mata. Kemudian, kaca mata tersebut mengirimkan aliran elektroda yang tertangkap "lolipop".<br /><br />Setelah itu, kamera menyampaikan informasi mengenai penampakan objek cahaya yang diangkap kamera ke unit terkecil cellphone. Selanjutnya, unit ini mengubah informasi cahaya menjadi bentuk rangsangan elektrik. Cara kerja alat ini bisa dibilang menggantikan cara kerja retina pada mata.<br /><br />Unit tersebut kemudian mengirimkan informasi ke 400 mikroelektroda 400 yang tersusun pada BrainPort. Mikroelektroda menstimulasi syaraf pada lidah sehingga pengguna serasa mengulum permen Pop Rocks yang seakan "meletup-letup" di lidah mereka.<br /><br />Yang menakjubkan, otak pengguna kemudian akan belajar menterjemahkan stimulus pada lidahnya kedalam bentuk gambar visual. Namun, hal ini tidak berarti otak dan mata dapat melihat jelas objek yang ditemui. Perangkat ini hanya menterjemahkan rangsangan syaraf dari mata dan mencoba menggambarkan objek yang terpampang dihadapan pengguna.Welcome To The Gie Iceman Zonehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08467823729991553473noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5716048184387339703.post-58778740374112061542009-11-11T09:47:00.000-08:002009-11-11T10:10:13.941-08:00How to write a Formal letter<span style="font-weight:bold;">A formal letter</span> is also known as a business letter. It goes without saying that formal writing is also known as business writing. Firstly, let us answer some questions related to business letters and business writing. <br /><br />• What is a business letter? <br />A business letter is a written or typed message from one business party to another, from one individual to an organization, or from one individual to another within an organisation for business related purposes.<br /> <br />• What is the difference between an informal letter and a business letter? <br />Basically, it is the purpose and the way they are written. An Informal Letter is written in a conversational and friendly manner because it is written between friends or very close acquaintances. A business letter is written solely for business purposes and therefore has formal language.<br /><br />•For what Purposes can formal letters be written? <br />o to apply for jobs <br />o to make an enquiry of a service, information, etc., or to deliver such. <br />o to make an appointment. <br />o to lodge in a complaint. <br />o to applogise <br />o to recommend someone for a certain job or position, or to recommend a service to praise for a service offered etc. <br /><br />• What guidelines should I keep in Mind when writing for Business purposes? <br />The word <span style="font-weight:bold;">business</span> seems to have connotations of <span style="font-weight:bold;">being busy</span>. Indeed, most, if not all, business people are busy people. They are always running around from one business appointment to another, from one meeting to another. <br /><br />In this hectic world, business people seem to have no time to do other things that are not related to their business. They will only pay real attention to something in so far as it affects their business. You should bear this in mind whenever you embark on any business writing. To get any good results, you need to write in such a manner that convinces your targets that you have something of substance, something that will contribute positively to their business. So how can you do this?<br /><br />Firstly, <span style="font-weight:bold;">Know your purpose</span> for writing. Ask yourself questions like:<br /> <br />Why am I writing this formal letter?<br /><br />What response do I want from the recipient (s)?<br /><br />What do I hope to achieve from writing this formal letter?<br /><br />Indeed, what is my goal?<br /><br />In short, <span style="font-weight:bold;">think before you write</span>. <br /><br />Don’t think as you write along!<br /><br />Having got your purpose clear in mind, <span style="font-weight:bold;">write in a clear</span>, <span style="font-weight:bold;">concise manner</span>. Remember, you are writing to an audience that is occupied with a lot of things.<br /><br />For example, do you know how many job application letters the company you are writing to is going to receive? Probably in the hundreds! So where the heck are they going to get the time to thoroughly examine all those letters?<br /><br />So even though you know some ‘cool’ words or ‘smart’ phrases, now is not the time to use them. They don’t care how large your vocabulary is. They just want to understand you! So don’t get all philosophical, poetic or downright extravagant in your language. If they can’t get what you are saying, they will just toss your letter aside (and most likely into the bin) and consider the next one. <br /><br />Here is an example of<span style="font-weight:bold;"> bad</span> business writing:<br />“I had served in several elevated capacities at secondary school, and my prowess at working with others was manifest and discernable to all my vigilant educators. Though being finicky, they, in sincerity, eulogized me for my conspicuous leadership qualities… ”<br /><br />Hmm….impressive English indeed. But do you reckon the person you are writing to has the time to look up those big words in the dictionary? Far from it! So, if you don’t want the letter to be tossed into the waste paper basket, <span style="font-weight:bold;">learn to write simply and clearly</span>.<br /><br />You could more appropriately say:<br /><br />“ I am acquainted with being in leadership, having served as a prefect back at secondary school. <br /><br />Concise, straight to the point – that is what we are talking about.<br /><br />But sometimes, writing too bluntly, too concisely may do more harm than good. It may sound rude.<br /><br />Instead of saying: <br />“We were appalled by your bad services and demand that you improve.” <br /><br />You might say,<br /><br />“Your services proved to be unsatisfactory, but we have the confidence that you can do better.” <br /><br />Writing in the active voice, as opposed to the passive voice will help you write clearly and concisely. Using active voice in business letters is advantageous because…<br />o It helps you to write in a clearly style <br />o It prevents ambiguity <br /><br />• What format should I follow when writing a formal Letter? <br /><br />Here is a sample of a business letter (bear in mind that future articles will discuss the various types of business letter individually). It shows the standard format of a business letter.<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg11corqkV3Bpu2qmuc2K2zBFGFM153lrw-eTMjbu1LRnKeCUaOpEYwYAi8T3oGmG1QPxfQg5DfXzpiLL-r57P9RYNXX32oc7_qfaBQZZIU9v909zh5blCoU3h-eyiBifFV8DrXY1dA96s/s1600-h/LETTERS.JPG"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 320px; height: 295px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg11corqkV3Bpu2qmuc2K2zBFGFM153lrw-eTMjbu1LRnKeCUaOpEYwYAi8T3oGmG1QPxfQg5DfXzpiLL-r57P9RYNXX32oc7_qfaBQZZIU9v909zh5blCoU3h-eyiBifFV8DrXY1dA96s/s320/LETTERS.JPG" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5402905945356882514" /></a><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">How to write a Formal letter</span><br /><br /><br />I would like you to take note of the following: <br /><br /><br />1. <span style="font-weight:bold;">Return Address </span><br /><br />This is the address of you, the sender. It is always a good practice to leave a line after the address and before the date, which should be written in full. <br /><br />The return address is usually on the right hand side of the paper as shown above.<br /> <br />Most companies have their own stationary, where the company logo and address is already printed. If you are thus using company stationary, you may not need to type the return address. In some circumstances, after the last item in the address and before the date, one may include a line for the telephone, fax or email. <br /><br />2. <span style="font-weight:bold;">Recipient’s Address</span> <br /><br />This is the address of the person, or company you are writing to. It is usually on the left hand side. It is a good practice to leave a space between the recipient’s Address and the return address. Note that, after the address, there is no date, since it is already indicated on the return address. <br /><br />Precede the recipient’s address or inside address with the title of the person you are writing too. This is appropriate because it ensures that the letter reaches the appropriate person in the company, otherwise, it may be lost. In our example, the recipient of this letter is the Human Resource Manager.<br /><br />3.<span style="font-weight:bold;"> Salutation </span><br /><br />Formal letter writing demands that the salutation be formal. Common salutations are:<br /><br />Dear Sir/Madam<br />This one is used if you do not know the gender of the person you are writing to, and if you do not know the person. If you know the gender, you might appropriately write: <br /><br />Dear Sir or Dear Madam as the case may be.<br /><br />You may opt to leave out the person’s title in the recipient’s address and use it instead in the salutation:<br /><br />Dear Human Resource Manager:<br /><br />Some people advocate writing the name of the person if you know him:<br /><br />Dear Mr. Tembo <br />But I would not recommend this because there may be sudden changes in the company work force, and there is the danger that the letter may not be considered at all. <br /><br />However, there are certain situations where using the person’s name may be appropriate. For example, if you know me personally (and by personally, I mean we are close friends), you might say:<br /><br />Dear Michael<br /><br />But if you are not that close to the person, you might appropriately address him by his sir name:<br /><br />Dear Mr. Sinkolongo<br /><br />For ladies, Use Mrs if she is married, Miss if she is not and Ms if you do not know the status.<br /><br />In most cases, companies or individual business people, require that you address the formal letter to a particular individual. A company may say, for instance, that you address the letter to the General Manager or a certain named individual, whereas a person who runs a private business may require that you address the letter to him. Pay attention to these instructions if you want the letter to reach at all. For example, I may say:<br /><br />Write to me at the following address...<br /><br />And of course, I would give you an address, and I would expect you to address the letter to me. <br /><br />Remember too, the salutation always ends with a full colon or a comma. <br /><br />4. <span style="font-weight:bold;">Heading </span><br /><br />The heading in the above formal letter is:<br /><br />Re: Application for Position of Electrical Engineer.<br /><br />As you can see, it is prefaced by either <span style="font-weight:bold;">Re</span>: or <span style="font-weight:bold;">Ref</span>:<br /><br />The heading is a swift way of informing the reader of what the letter is all about. At one glance, the reader knows what the formal letter is about. It can either be centered or justified left, depending on what works best for you. <br /><br />For the heading to serve its purpose, it must be more prominent than the other text. Making the text bold or underlining it can serve this purpose. <br /><br />However, for what its worth, the heading is not popular in modern formal letter writing. It is usually left out. It’s entirely up to you. Considering its usefulness, I am quite inclined to use it. <br /><br />5. <span style="font-weight:bold;">Body </span><br /><br />The body of a formal letter is brief. This is because business writing is straight to the point as stated above. When we write a formal letter, we want to hit the nail on the head, and not beat about the bush. <br /><br />The purpose of writing is stated right in the very first paragraph.<br /> <br />With reference to the advertisement in the Post Newspaper of 9th January, 2006, <span style="font-weight:bold;">I would like to apply for the position of Electrical Engineering in the Engineering </span>department of your company. <br /><br />Most of us, unconsciously, make the mistake of starting thus:<br /><br />I am writing to….<br /><br />I think they already know that we are writing! But within this cliché of a statement is the very reason for writing the first paragraph: to state the purpose of the letter! <br /><br />Remember, when writing the first paragraph, you are answering the question: “Why are you writing to us?”<br /><br />The paragraphs are so succinct that they may be only a sentence long sometimes. That’s okay; the shorter, the better. The point is to leave out non-essentials. <br /><br />Paragraphs contain one main subject. They should not include too many ideas, otherwise the reader will be confused. In addition, they should be well-structured and follow a discernible logic. They should build on what has been stated in the opening paragraph. <br /><br />Your paragraphs may be indented or they may be written in block form – like the way this one is written. I favour the block form because of its convenience, especially when you are typing out the letter using a computer.<br /><br />A little word about language: I said that it should be formal language. Well, sometimes, if you are writing to a very close business associate, you will obviously find yourself using a blend of business language and informal language. This is okay. Work to maintain a perfect balance if you are to use informal language. <br /><br />Your style also serves to give an impression of how serious you are. If you are too informal, the reader will think that you are not serious. But if you are too formal, you might make your reader uncomfortable, perhaps even frighten her! Restricting your use of passive voice will assist you greatly to this effect. <br /><br />The concluding sentence should be a summary of what you’ve talked about, but more so an effort to elicit a response. <br /><br />In the formal letter above, the most wanted response is an interview, so he mentions this. Depending on the response you want, make it easy for the reader to respond accordingly. If you would like further correspondence, provide your address or number. If you would like a meeting, suggest a day or ask the person to do so. <br /><br />6. <span style="font-weight:bold;">Complimentary Close </span><br />The complimentary close in the formal letter is determined by the salutation. <br /><br />A Salutation of Dear Sir, Dear madam or Dear Sir/Madam is accompanied by :<br />Yours Faithfully. <br /><br />A salutation of Dear Mrs. Sinkolongo, Dear Ms Jones or Dear Miss Smith is accompanied by:<br /><br />Yours Sincerely<br />A salutation of the type Dear Nancy may be accompanied by:<br />Yours truly or something along such lines. <br /><br />Here is how to do it:<br /><br />Leave a line, then write the appropriate close, i.e, Yours faithfully or Yours sincerely followed by a comma. <br /><br />The complimentary close may be justified left , centred, or may be on the far right. It is however, a practice to start the close exactly at the same line the return address starts. <br /><br />7.<span style="font-weight:bold;"> Signing off</span> <br /><br />This is where you write your name, and if need be, your designation and company. <br /><br />Here is how to do it:<br /><br />After the complimentary close, leave about two lines, and then write your full name. In between your name and the complimentary close, you many put your signature.<br />The way you put your name is important because it will determine how you will be addressed. For example, if you sign off of Mrs. Helen Bwalya, you will addressed thus if the person you are writing to replies:<br /><br />Dear Mrs. Helen Bwalya,<br /><br />If appropriate, you may include your designation. For example:<br /><br />Yours faithfully,<br /><br />JJones<br />Justine Jones,<br />Human Resource Manager.<br /><br />Your signature should be signed by hand, of course, to show that personal touch.<br /> <br />I once saw my father signing a hand full of formal letters, so I reckon sometimes, the outgoing mail in a company may only go if authorized by a certain individual in the company.Welcome To The Gie Iceman Zonehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08467823729991553473noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5716048184387339703.post-8037978766629806032009-11-11T09:22:00.000-08:002009-11-11T09:42:26.313-08:00Formal letter writing<span style="font-weight:bold;">Formal letter writing </span>is one of the most challenging types of letter writing, as often you are addressing a person or organisation with whom you ar enot familiar and the quality of your content, spelling and grammar will be scrutinised. <br /><br />In contemporary society there is a trend to use a shorthand writing style, for instance replacing the word "you" with "u" or replacing the word "weekend" with "wkend", there are many other examples. This casual approach and informal writing style can easily be easily transferred, even subconsciously, when a more formal style is required. <br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Layout of a Formal Letter</span><br />The example formal letter below details the general layout that a formal letter should conform to. Each aspect of the formal letter is detailed more fully below the image. <br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgSaRwft0jH6svkRkDOz_UVurA3tY3ZprQjtcbv9zc7B28JJIc2-oGeOfNkhU38y53JXuvn9GBk9TMa0VX8nalsy_imwV3-OyD1casrIjdQvRfSdRKK1NhrKCGDvPRNHZLWircbKtYRMS4/s1600-h/FORMAL+LETTER.JPG"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 320px; height: 240px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgSaRwft0jH6svkRkDOz_UVurA3tY3ZprQjtcbv9zc7B28JJIc2-oGeOfNkhU38y53JXuvn9GBk9TMa0VX8nalsy_imwV3-OyD1casrIjdQvRfSdRKK1NhrKCGDvPRNHZLWircbKtYRMS4/s320/FORMAL+LETTER.JPG" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5402901742912365026" /></a><br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Formal Letter Writing Conventions</span><br /><br />There are a number of conventions that should be adhered to when producing a formal letter. It is important that the overall structure is as clear and concise as possible and that you avoid the use of colloquialisms. <br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Addresses:</span><br /><br />1) The Address of the person you are writing to<br />This address should be displayed in the top right-hand section of your letter, remember to include the name of the person that you are writing to. <br /><br />2) Your Address<br />You must always remember to include your own address on the left-hand side of the page beneath the address of the person that you are sending the letter to. This will enable the person that you are writing to, to reply to your letter. <br /><br />Date:<br />This should be displayed on the right-hand side of the page on the line beneath your address ans should be written in full format:<br />e.g. 1st January 2001 . <br /><br />Salutation & Greeting:<br /><br />1) Dear Sirs,<br />If you do not know the name of the person you are writing to, use the greeting "Dear Sirs,". In some circumstances it is useful to find a name, especially if you are writing to make a request. <br /><br />2) Dear Mr Jones, <br />If you know the name, use one of the followind titles:<br />Mr - for a male<br />Mrs - for a married female<br />Miss - for an unmarried female <br />Ms - for a female whose status is unknown or would prefer to remain anonymous <br />Dr - for a person with the status of a doctor <br />followed by the surname only (not the first name).<br /><br /><br />Concluding a Letter:<br /><br />1) Yours faithfully,<br />If you do not know the name of the person, end the letter with "Yours faithfully,".<br /><br />2) Yours sincerely,<br />If you know the name of the person, end the letter with "Yours sincerely,". <br /><br />3) Your signature<br />Sign your name, then print it underneath the signature. If it is potentially unclear what your title would be then include this in brackets next to your printed name. <br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Content of a Formal Letter</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Introductory Paragraph</span><br />The introductory paragraph should be concise and should clearly state the purpose of the formal letter whether that is to lodge a complaint, make an enquiry or to request something.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Main Body </span><br />The main body of the formal letter should contain state the points that you want to make in your letter. As a general rule it is a good idea to keep this as to the point as possible to ensure that the receipient remains engaged. Longer letters may be more appropriate when making a complaint as you may require to add more detail in order to convey the importance of what you are putting accross.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Concluding Paragraph</span><br />The concluding paragraph of a formal letter should outline what action you would like the recipient to take: to make a refund, to send you information etc. <br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Application of Formal Letter Writing Techniques</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Letter of Complaint</span> <br /><br />A letter of complaint is a formal letter sent to an individual or organisation in response to receiving poor service or a product that is not fit for purpose. An example of a letter of complaint would be a letter sent to a tour operator who has provided a bad service while you have been on holiday. This type of formal letter does not neccessarily need to be concise as it is important that you detail your arguments and points as much as possible. <br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Letter of Enquiry</span><br /><br />A letter of enquiry is a formal letter that makes an approach to an individual or organisation either speculatively or in response to printed public domain material whereby you are requestion some information. An example of a letter of enquiry would be a letter sent to an company requesting a copy of their catalogue or brochure. By their very nature letters of enquiry are short and to the point, it is usually beneficial to include other methods of contact incase the company needs to get in touch with you in a more efficient manner. <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;"><br />Letter of Request</span><br /><br />A letter of reuest is a formal letter much like a letter of enquiry but specifically asks an individual or organisation to take an action. An example os a letter of request would be a letter sent to request sponsorship for a charity activity. It is important to stress the importance of being clear and concise with this format of letter as the receipient must remain engaged and interested in what you have to say.Welcome To The Gie Iceman Zonehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08467823729991553473noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5716048184387339703.post-9801817582135697932009-11-11T08:31:00.000-08:002009-11-11T09:18:20.734-08:00FRAME RELAY<span style="font-weight:bold;">Frame Relay</span> adalah protokol WAN yang mempunyai performa tinggi yang beroperasi pada physical layer (layer pertama) dan data link (layer kedua) pada layer OSI referensi model, Frame Relay merupakan komunikasi data packet-switched yang dapat menghubungkan beberapa perangkat jaringan dengan multipoint WAN dan dapat diimplementasikan pada beberapa jenis interface jaringan. Frame relay adalah teknologi komunikasi berkecepatan tinggi yang telah digunakan pada ribuan jaringan di seluruh dunia untuk menghubungkan LAN, SNA, Internet dan bahkan aplikasi suara/voice.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;"><br />Frame Relay</span> merupakan standar yang dikeluarkan oleh CCITT (Consultative Committee for International Telegraph and Telephone) dan ANSI (American National Standards Institute) untuk proses pengiriman data melalui PDN (Public Data Network). Pengiriman informasi dilakukan dengan membagi data menjadi paket. Setiap paket dikirimkan melalui rangkaian WAN switch sebelum akhirnya sampai kepada tujuan.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;"><br />Frame relay</span> adalah cara mengirimkan informasi melalui wide area network (WAN) yang membagi informasi menjadi frame atau paket. Masing-masing frame mempunyai alamat yang digunakan oleh jaringan untuk menentukan tujuan. Frame- frame akan melewati switch dalam jaringan frame relay dan dikirimkan melalui “virtual circuit” sampai tujuan. <br /><br /><br />Standar internasional untuk akses jaringan dengan penyakelaran paket yang pertama muncul adalah X.25, yang direkomendasikan oleh CCITT (kini ITU-T) pada tahun 1976. Frame Relay yang muncul setelah X.25 ternyata jauh lebih efektif daripada X.25, karena X.25 kerjanya menjadi lambat karena adanya koreksi dan deteksi kesalahan. Frame Relay memiliki sedikit perbedaan; ia mendefinisikan secara berulang header-nya pada bagian awal dari frame, sehingga dihasilkan header frame normal 2-byte (satu byte atau octet terdiri dari delapan bit). Header Frame Relay dapat juga diperluas menjadi tiga atau empat byte untuk menambah ruang alamat total yang disediakan. Piranti-piranti pengguna ditunjukkan sebagai pengarah-pengarah LAN, karena hal tersebut merupakan aplikasi Frame Relay yang berlaku secara umum. Tentu saja mereka dapat juga merupakan jembatan- jembatan LAN, Host atau front-end processor atau piranti lainnya dengan sebuah antarmuka Frame Relay.<br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Fitur Frame Relay</span><br /><br />Beberapa fitur frame relay adalah sebagai berikut:<br />1. Kecepatan tinggi<br />2. Bandwidth Dinamik<br />3. Performansi yang baik/ Good Performance<br />4. Overhead yang rendah dan kehandalah tinggi (High Reliability)<br /><br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Perangkat Frame Relay</span><br /><br />Sebuah jaringan frame relay terdiri dari “endpoint” (PC, server, komputer host), perangkat akses frame relay (bridge, router, host, frame relay access device/FRAD) dan perangkat jaringan (packet switch, router, multiplexer T1/E1). Perangkat-perangkat tersebut dibagi menjadi dua kategori yang berbeda:<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiS-H302-l23acA2hbRm1AABBwJTOh1Zg-NpCkU-9tapiqhd3pgXpTzYmc7bROYUFV9pDUIjCPhsL6lwvifntG2Bvj_MvN1Uwt8Inxmba3_tHwkNY-hazM5JZ4yk-IyOixo7X0EBMY4NRg/s1600-h/JARINGAN+FRAME+RELAY.JPG"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 320px; height: 222px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiS-H302-l23acA2hbRm1AABBwJTOh1Zg-NpCkU-9tapiqhd3pgXpTzYmc7bROYUFV9pDUIjCPhsL6lwvifntG2Bvj_MvN1Uwt8Inxmba3_tHwkNY-hazM5JZ4yk-IyOixo7X0EBMY4NRg/s320/JARINGAN+FRAME+RELAY.JPG" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5402889778689686194" /></a><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgfoix1v6AQyY0-wstGEzD8Huocg2KV6eZXEZr2RVLg59y8Dg8F96isNOwq3w1J-4w0rK2PNLIN4K_yFZWky0dajMhebYxNQHCsJGU0ktH22eMIplEWKx1iwwP04Vb5cK1K0GEmmVyWTB0/s1600-h/FRAME+RELAY.JPG"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 260px; height: 290px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgfoix1v6AQyY0-wstGEzD8Huocg2KV6eZXEZr2RVLg59y8Dg8F96isNOwq3w1J-4w0rK2PNLIN4K_yFZWky0dajMhebYxNQHCsJGU0ktH22eMIplEWKx1iwwP04Vb5cK1K0GEmmVyWTB0/s320/FRAME+RELAY.JPG" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5402888966609690114" /></a><br /><br />Gambar jaringan Frame Relay<br /><br /><br /> DTE: Data Terminating Equipment<br />DTE adalah node,biasanya milik end-user dan perangka internetworking. Perangkat DTE ini mencakup “endpoint” dan perangkat akses pada jaringan Frame Relay. DTE yang memulai suatu pertukaran informasi.<br /><br /> DCE: Data Communication Equipment<br />DCE adalah perangkat “internetworking” pengontrol “carrier”. Perangkat- perangkat ini juga mencakup perangkat akses, teatpi terpusat di sekitar perangkat jaringan. DCE merespon pertukaran informasi yang dimulai oleh perangkat DTE<br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">FORMAT FRAME RELAY</span><br /><br />Format Frame Relay terdiri atas bagian-bagian sebagai berikut:<br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Flags</span><br /><br />Membatasi awal dan akhir suatu frame. Nilai field ini selalu sama dan dinyatakan dengan bilangan hexadesimal 7E atau 0111 1110 dalam format biner. Untuk mematikan bilangan tersebut tidak muncul pada bagian frame lainnya, digunakan prosedur Bit-stuffing dan Bit-destuffing.<br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Address</span><br /><br />Terdiri dari beberapa informasi:<br /><br />1. Data Link Connection Identifier (DLCI), terdiri dari 10 bita, bagian pokok dari header Frame Relay dan merepresentasikan koneksi virtual antara DTE dan Switch Frame Relay. Tiap koneksi virtual memiliki 1 DLCI yang unik.<br />2. Extended Address (EA), menambah kemungkinan pengalamatan transmisi data dengan menambahkan 1 bit untuk pengalamatan<br />3. C/R,menentukan apakah frame ini termasuk dalam kategori Perintah<br />(Command) atau Tanggapan (Response)<br />4. FECN (Forward Explicit Congestion Notification), indikasi jumlah frame yang dibuang karena terjadinya kongesti di jaringan tujuan<br />5. BECN (Backward Explicit Congestion Notification), indikasi jumlah frame yang mengarah ke switch FR tersebut tetapi dibuang karena terjadinya kongesti di jaringan asal.<br />6. Discard Eligibility, menandai frame yang dapat dibuang jika terjadi kongesti<br />di jaringan.<br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Data</span><br /><br />Terdiri dari data pada layer di atasnya yang dienkapsulasi. Tiap frame yang panjangnya bervariasi ini dapat mencapai hingga 4096 oktet.<br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Frame Check Sequence</span><br /><br />Bertujuan untuk memastikan integritas data yang ditransmisikan. nilai ini dihitung perangkat sumber dan diverifikasi oleh penerima. Header Frame Relay terdiri dari deretan angka sepuluh bit, DLCI (Data Link Connection Identifier)-nya merupakan nomor rangkaian virtual Frame Relay yang berkaitan dengan arah tujuan frame tersebut. Dalam hal hubungan antar kerja LAN-WAN, DLCI ini akan menunjukkan port-port yang merupakan LAN pada sisi tujuan yang akan dicapai. Adanya DLCI tersebut memungkinkan data mencapai simpul (node) Frame Relay yang akan dikirimi melalui jaringan dengan menempuh proses tiga langkah yang sederhana yakni:<br /> <br />• Memeriksa integritas dari frame-nya dengan menggunakan FCS (Frame Check Sequence). Jika melalui pemeriksaan ini diketahui adanya suatu kesalahan, frame tersebut akan dibuang.<br />• Mencari DLCI dalam suatu tabel. Jika DLCI tersebut tidak didefinisikan untuk link (hubungan) yang dimaksud, frame akan dibuang.<br />• Mengirim ulang (disebut merelay) frame tersebut menuju tujuannya dengan<br />mengirimnya ke luar, ke port atau trunk (jalur) yang telah dispesifikasikan dalam daftar tabelnya.<br /><br />Dengan demikian,simpul Frame Relay tidak melakukan banyak langkah pemrosesan sebagaimana halnya dalam protokol-protokol yang mempunyai keistimewaan penuh seperti X.25.<br /><br />Deskripsi yang menunjukkan pemrosesan langkah-langkah untuk error recovery (pemulihan akibat adanya kesalahan) dan frame non-informasi untuk X.25 akan jauh lebih rumit. Rangkaian-rangkaian pada Frame Relay merupakan rangkaian Virtual Circuit (VC). VC ini diatur sejak awal secara administratif baik oleh operator jaringan melalui sistem manajemen jaringan (disebut PVC; permanent virtual circuit), maupun melalui suatu basis call-by-call dalam aliran data normal dengan menggunakan suatu perintah dari pengguna jaringannya (disebut SVC; switched virtual circuit). Untuk X.25, metode normal penciptaan panggilan (call set-up) adalah dengan SVC. Karena VC pada Frame Relay pada umumnya menentukan atau mendefinisikan suatu hubungan antara dua LAN. Sebuah VC baru tentu dibutuhkan jika akan memasang sebuah LAN yang baru ke jaringan tersebut, yang dapat di set-up melalui PVC atau SVC.<br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Virtual Circuit (VC) Frame Relay</span><br /><br />Suatu jaringan frame relay sering digambarkan sebagai awan frame relay (frame relay cloud), karena jaringan frame relay network bukan terdiri dari satu koneksi fisik antara “endpoint” dengan lainnya, melainkan jalur/path logika yang telah didefinisikan dalam jaringan. Jalur ini didasarkan pada konsep virtual circuit (VC). VC adalah dua-arah (two-way), jalur data yang didefinisikan secara software antara dua port yang membentuk saluran khusur (private line) untuk pertukaran informasi dalam jaringan.Terdapat dua tipe virtual circuit (VC) yaitu :<br /><br /> Switched Virtual Circuit (SVC)<br /> Permanent Virtual Circuit (PVC)<br /> <br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Switched Virtual Circuit (SVC)</span><br /><br />Switched Virtual Circuits (SVC), adalah koneksi sementara yang digunakan ketika terjadi transfer data antar perangkat DTE melewati jaringan Frame Relay. Terdapat empat status pada sebuah SVC:<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiN_zwOg2EeXERtWouW6dpxXj0S3sG_m2N-7bipmImYqavajzLUlU228Nd7vTo8Ard-K5Pbv2B2juDZFjxz12mNGJ-q7fLBBU-Xc1OOX3dqixJOig1wLOjuGdDTkTyBOGwcHWeLY_W9oaw/s1600-h/SVC.JPG"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 320px; height: 130px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiN_zwOg2EeXERtWouW6dpxXj0S3sG_m2N-7bipmImYqavajzLUlU228Nd7vTo8Ard-K5Pbv2B2juDZFjxz12mNGJ-q7fLBBU-Xc1OOX3dqixJOig1wLOjuGdDTkTyBOGwcHWeLY_W9oaw/s320/SVC.JPG" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5402892791503653762" /></a><br /><br />Gambar SVC<br /><br /><br /><br />Empat status pada SVC :<br /><br /><br />1. Call setup<br /><br />2. Data transfer<br /><br />3. Idling<br /><br />4. Call termination<br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Call Setup</span><br /><br />Call Setup: Dalam status awal memulai komunikasi, virtual circuit (vc) antar dua perangkat DTE Frame Relay terbentuk.<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjBktt7SYb-BtMyf1livqv6jJuUdFTqt60XLdMU2Rm0TwAPBYtxGTyLLjm1TKIC0Df9lZA3Nwdw4CidPUbpOjxL1bHxbfK2TLYj1CsDxld7W02LzZNhGESFED1dyCfsajLkIrITb4_YIeg/s1600-h/SVC+CALL+SETUP.JPG"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 320px; height: 130px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjBktt7SYb-BtMyf1livqv6jJuUdFTqt60XLdMU2Rm0TwAPBYtxGTyLLjm1TKIC0Df9lZA3Nwdw4CidPUbpOjxL1bHxbfK2TLYj1CsDxld7W02LzZNhGESFED1dyCfsajLkIrITb4_YIeg/s320/SVC+CALL+SETUP.JPG" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5402893559973267362" /></a><br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Data Transfer</span><br /><br /><br />Data Transfer: Kemudian,data ditransfer antar perangkat DTE melalui virtual<br /><br />circuit (vc).<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjIsDEYsNLlvHHrazqQvxrxP10VEY4knB00KXqHoDkctLofyVcLkpeoPVA44KjexnzsVZRatQVvY0aJUgJsaSQmQvC9womTyv4tpLGn6CUqTv0lywtVQX9WlPhuMRPysyp5mQQPEGee_I0/s1600-h/SVC+DATA+TRANSFER.JPG"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 320px; height: 130px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjIsDEYsNLlvHHrazqQvxrxP10VEY4knB00KXqHoDkctLofyVcLkpeoPVA44KjexnzsVZRatQVvY0aJUgJsaSQmQvC9womTyv4tpLGn6CUqTv0lywtVQX9WlPhuMRPysyp5mQQPEGee_I0/s320/SVC+DATA+TRANSFER.JPG" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5402894073766423058" /></a><br /><br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Idling</span><br /><br /><br />Idling : Pada kondisi “idling”,koneksi masih ada dan terbuka,tetapitransfer data telah berhenti.<br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEig_u62NgZKYhO3RJ8yCUAGrQEJ0n6alwmr_lbI4PcKtF-Zi2L7mr2EVAkRhKzNMAfPDC-KQEcvcKouk31jyGtkKi3RvPxKnhmDHim3gtoSTNWjPb2r2IWOvIN8SuBJi9I-mrmz-p5rnNw/s1600-h/SVC+IDLING.JPG"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 320px; height: 130px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEig_u62NgZKYhO3RJ8yCUAGrQEJ0n6alwmr_lbI4PcKtF-Zi2L7mr2EVAkRhKzNMAfPDC-KQEcvcKouk31jyGtkKi3RvPxKnhmDHim3gtoSTNWjPb2r2IWOvIN8SuBJi9I-mrmz-p5rnNw/s320/SVC+IDLING.JPG" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5402894815540204642" /></a><br /><br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Call Termination</span><br /><br /><br />Call Termination: Setelah koneksi “idle” untuk beberapa perioda waktu tertentu, koneksi antar dua DTE akan diputus.<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEimi0g1vDMcVssuL-CoqmQwpPumped_8zlCgvGf79lfwcObUf0OMmJ3_iLRx6X41NB5T7rcnrixoxPKk4J-4vmnfkXMLvNUPeecHNAnHmVxPhzYmcBTgQJgufdBkXJiPC4jhBPSc7oJhFg/s1600-h/SVC+CALL+TERMINATION.JPG"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 320px; height: 130px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEimi0g1vDMcVssuL-CoqmQwpPumped_8zlCgvGf79lfwcObUf0OMmJ3_iLRx6X41NB5T7rcnrixoxPKk4J-4vmnfkXMLvNUPeecHNAnHmVxPhzYmcBTgQJgufdBkXJiPC4jhBPSc7oJhFg/s320/SVC+CALL+TERMINATION.JPG" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5402895262288707922" /></a><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Permanent Virtual Circuit (PVC)</span><br /><br /><br />PVC adalah jalur/path tetap, oleh karena itu tidak dibentuk berdasarkan permintaan atau berdasarkan “call-by-call”. Walaupun jalur aktual melalui jaringan berdasarkan variasi waktu ke waktu (TDM) tetapi “circuit” dari awal ke tujuan tidak akan berubah. PVC adalah koneksi permanen terus menerus seperti “dedicated point-to-point circuit”.<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiSCp2l61xdP_rJR83kItiGH7xeXGWV0bi8uPUggLy27xWXx9EIlHQLyWhFUe2a1Lm09iiqmr6JzGcg_K0w58iZB_kf1nflCtvlHmYR3_i4Vn-MlV7zqZzoF9N0tvsHKuYBIlUfyp9fa-A/s1600-h/PVC.JPG"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 320px; height: 130px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiSCp2l61xdP_rJR83kItiGH7xeXGWV0bi8uPUggLy27xWXx9EIlHQLyWhFUe2a1Lm09iiqmr6JzGcg_K0w58iZB_kf1nflCtvlHmYR3_i4Vn-MlV7zqZzoF9N0tvsHKuYBIlUfyp9fa-A/s320/PVC.JPG" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5402895789762204034" /></a><br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Perbandingan PVC dan SVC</span><br /><br />PVC lebih populer karena menyediakan alternatif yang lebih murah dibandingkan “leased line”. Berbeda dengan SVC, PVC tidak pernah putus (disconnect), oleh karena itu, tidak pernah terdapat status “call setup” dan “termination”. Hanya terdapat 2 status :<br /> <br />• Data transfer<br />• Idling<br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">KESIMPULAN</span><br /><br />• Frame Relay merupakan teknologi untuk komunikasi data yang memiliki performansi dengan kecepatan tinggi yang memecah data menjadi frame-frame.<br />• Implementasi Frame Relay yaitu pada jaringan publik dan jaringan privatenya.<br />• Jaringan publik Frame Relay memiliki keunggulan dari sisi biaya karena hanya dibebankan biaya sewa penggunaan jaringan saja.<br />• Jaringan private Frame Relay memiliki keunggulan dari sisi keamanan karena seluruh mekanisme pada jaringan menjadi hak pengolahan sepenuhnya perusahaan.<br />• Jaringan Frame Relay memiliki keunggulan dimana memiliki kehandalan yang tinggi jika didukung sistem transmisi dan network yang handal juga (seperti Fiber Optic), mampu mengelolah traffic data yang bersifat bursty, dan tingkat keamanan yang tinggi karena menggunakan jalur komunikasi khusus.<br />• Jaringan Frame Relay memiliki kelemahan pada fleksibilitas karena menggunakan jaringan khusus (bukan jaringan internet), dimana mengalami kesulitan ketika mobile-worker bermaksud untuk mengakses jaringan tersebut.<br />• Frame Relay bukanlah solusi terbaik untuk membangun jaringan komunikasi data karena masih memiliki kelemahan-kelemahan yang berisiko. Namun meskipun begitu Frame Relay bukanlah solusi yang buruk karena masih memiliki keunggulan- keunggulan disisi lain.Welcome To The Gie Iceman Zonehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08467823729991553473noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5716048184387339703.post-87855597274202586962009-11-11T08:07:00.000-08:002009-11-11T08:28:12.353-08:00Pengertian Protokol X.25Apakah sebenarnya protocol X.25 itu?<br /><br />• Sebagai salah satu protocol paket switching yang tertua, (Datalink Protocol)<br />• X.25 tidaklah sepopuler ‘keturunannya’ (Frame Relay, ATM, dll). <br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">DEFINISI</span><br />• X.25 adalah protocol yang mendefinisikan bagaimana computer (device) pada jaringan public yang berbeda platform bisa saling berkomunikasi. Protocol yang sudah distandarisasi oleh International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T). <br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKCjPnUk7dUY1z-bUqRFQwLw1panarrZuLac-dftyoPE85Z_LxEj2atsEZV94K2lHzcKef4TBc0_FeNaK4qhDZNNJ7f1hjZGVgmR8vS5wzbzbD1UplIeFV4FlSWG9PtZPHTlNMvKMKOCw/s1600-h/Paket+Switching+dari+Jaringan+X.25.JPG"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 320px; height: 265px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKCjPnUk7dUY1z-bUqRFQwLw1panarrZuLac-dftyoPE85Z_LxEj2atsEZV94K2lHzcKef4TBc0_FeNaK4qhDZNNJ7f1hjZGVgmR8vS5wzbzbD1UplIeFV4FlSWG9PtZPHTlNMvKMKOCw/s320/Paket+Switching+dari+Jaringan+X.25.JPG" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5402879295763316258" /></a><br /><br />Gambar 1. Paket Switching dari Jaringan X.25<br /><br /><br /><br />Device pada X.25 ini terbagi menjadi tiga kategori <br />• Data Terminal Equipment (DTE),<br />• Data Circuit-terminating Equipment (DCE) serta<br />• Packet Switching Exchange (PSE).<br />• Device yang digolongkan DTE adalah end-system seperti terminal, PC, host jaringan (user device). <br />• Sedang device DCE adalah device komunikasi seperti modem dan switch. Device inilah yang menyediakan interface bagi komunikasi antara DTE dan PSE. Adapun PSE ialah switch yang yang menyusun sebagian besar carrier network. Hubungan antar ketiga kategori ini diilustrasikan pada gambar 2. <br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjx2TJ4Za0Pj4RN_PeU7DkVHEEPrg2jdIaw35DMDaDUT4opCRtpqwSmLikDaDs3iXjujNlgIc3GoraZnxsLdPvJWpTN8VNgp-2ahXfgHkyEd2hC5tsTNFC-PhuE2QyHLRqDBsFuf6cbmDc/s1600-h/Hubungan+DTE-DCE+dan+PSE.JPG"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 320px; height: 144px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjx2TJ4Za0Pj4RN_PeU7DkVHEEPrg2jdIaw35DMDaDUT4opCRtpqwSmLikDaDs3iXjujNlgIc3GoraZnxsLdPvJWpTN8VNgp-2ahXfgHkyEd2hC5tsTNFC-PhuE2QyHLRqDBsFuf6cbmDc/s320/Hubungan+DTE-DCE+dan+PSE.JPG" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5402879966502926082" /></a><br /><br />Gambar 2. Hubungan DTE-DCE dan PSE<br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Protokol Pada X.25</span><br /><br />Penggunaan protokol pada model standar X.25 ini meliputi tiga layer terbawah dari model referensi OSI. Terdapat tiga protokol yang biasa digunakan pada implementasi X.25 yaitu:<br />• Packet-Layer Protocol (PLP), <br />• Link Access Procedure, Balanced (LAPB) <br />• Serta beberapa standar elektronik dari interface layer fisik seperti EIA/TIA-232, EIA/TIA-449, EIA-530, dan G.703. <br />• Gambar 3 mengilustrasikan protokol-protokol X.25 ini pada model OSI.<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjUaoXLJjUb_ifPK98_WjNaZHWAalAQiTAUWc4Y_lahghrR39R6voIuHTWwP14SVTUWkUi863oYPXCaWktxOmyd70q3574oVqTQ4UicAUuOCEzYq4TlYuYlisHP_Wx-mctS4C6iHqXN8-s/s1600-h/Perbandingan+Protokol+X.25+Pada+Tiga+Layer+Terbawah+OSI.JPG"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 320px; height: 173px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjUaoXLJjUb_ifPK98_WjNaZHWAalAQiTAUWc4Y_lahghrR39R6voIuHTWwP14SVTUWkUi863oYPXCaWktxOmyd70q3574oVqTQ4UicAUuOCEzYq4TlYuYlisHP_Wx-mctS4C6iHqXN8-s/s320/Perbandingan+Protokol+X.25+Pada+Tiga+Layer+Terbawah+OSI.JPG" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5402880673409826434" /></a><br /><br />Gambar 3. Perbandingan Protokol X.25 Pada Tiga Layer Terbawah OSI<br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Lapisan-lapisan X25</span><br /><br />Layer 1: <br />• Physical Layer bekerja dengan elektris atau sinyal. Didalamnya termasuk beberapa standar elektronik seperti is V.35 , RS232 and X.21.<br /><br />Layer 2: <br />• Data Link Layer, pada X.25 diimplementasikan ISO HDLC standar yang disebut Link Access Procedure Balanced (LAPB) dan menyediakan link yang bebas error antara dua node yang secara fisik terkoneksi. Error ini akan dicek dan dikoreksi pada tiap hop pada network.<br />• Fasilitas inilah yang membuat X.25 handal, dan cocok untuk link yang noisy, cenderung punya banyak error. <br />• Protocol modern seperti Frame Relay atau ATM tidak punya error correction dan hanya memiliki basic flow control. Mereka merngandalkan protokol pada level yang lebih tinggi seperti TCP/IP untuk menyediakan flow control dan end-to-end error correction. <br /><br />Layer 3: <br />•Network Layer yang mengatur komunikasi end-to-end antar device DTE. Layer ini mengurus set-up dan memutus koneksi serta fungsi routing dan juga multiplexing. <br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Virtual Circuit X.25</span><br /><br />• Sebuah virtual circuit adalah koneksi logical yang dibuat untuk menjamin konektivitas antara dua network device. Sebuah virtual circuit menandai sebuah path logical dua arah dari sebuah DTE ke device lain dalam sebuah jaringan X.25. <br />• X.25 membuat beberapa user DTE pada jaringan X.25 untuk berkomunikasi dengan beberapa DTE lain secara simultan. Hal ini dimungkinkan karena X.25 mempunyai circuit logical tadi. <br />• Secara fisik, koneksi ini dapat melalui berapapun node seperti DCE dan PSE. Beberapa virtual circuit bisa disatukan (multiplexing) menjadi sebuah koneksi fisik tunggal. Kemudian koneksi ini bisa dipecah lagi di tempat tujuan, untuk kemudian menyampaikan data pada tujuan masing-masing. Gambar 4 dibawah menggambarkan bagaimana proses multiplexing dan demultiplexing ini.<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhgfRAu0Z7LElW_zbSjzxnNPRnWlQx0mzUtF1gj7Y91zelE4AzGv6eFOzBEbxwhMCm3pm4eZuQ2u9f4mhVc_mzbhUo6hiavSPrLVzG6dvt9_sw_siynd75z2d_W6W5P71dLpVKM8yelLCo/s1600-h/Penggabungan+beberapa+virtual+circuit+menjadi+satu+circuit+fisik.JPG"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 320px; height: 104px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhgfRAu0Z7LElW_zbSjzxnNPRnWlQx0mzUtF1gj7Y91zelE4AzGv6eFOzBEbxwhMCm3pm4eZuQ2u9f4mhVc_mzbhUo6hiavSPrLVzG6dvt9_sw_siynd75z2d_W6W5P71dLpVKM8yelLCo/s320/Penggabungan+beberapa+virtual+circuit+menjadi+satu+circuit+fisik.JPG" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5402881357643071762" /></a><br /><br />Gambar 4. Penggabungan beberapa virtual circuit menjadi satu circuit fisik<br /><br /><br />• Sedangkan virtual circuit pada X.25 itu sendiri terbagi menjadi dua, yaitu switch dan permanen. <br />• Switched virtual circuits (SVC) adalah koneksi temporer yang digunakan untuk transfer data yang jarang dilakukan. SVC ini terjadi antar dua DTE yang tiap kali koneksi akan membuat koneksi, menjaga hingga mengakhiri sesi yang diperlukan. SVC ini bisa diibaratkan seperti sambungan telepon. Sebuah koneksi tersambung, data ditransfer lalu koneksi tersebut ditutup. Tiap DTE pada network mempunyai sebuah alamat DTE unik, penggunaan yang mirip dengan telepon.<br />• Dan permanent virtual circuits (PVCs) adalah koneksi permanen yang digunakan untuk transfer data yang kerap dilakukan (frekuensi koneksi sering) serta transfer data yang konsisten. Pada jenis ini tidak diperlukan pengadaan sebuah sesi, <br />• sehingga DTE bisa memulai mentransfer data kapanpun karena sesi PVC ini selalu ada (aktif). <br />• Untuk membuat suatu koneksi SVC, DTE asal mengirimkan sebuah paket Call Request Packet, yang mengandung alamat DTE tujuan. <br />• DTE tujuan memutuskan akan menerima paket atau tidak. Kemudian panggilan dari DTE asal diterima dengan mengirimkan paket Call Accepted atau dengan mengirimkan paket Clear Request apabila DTE tujuan memutuskan untuk tidak menerima koneksi tersebut. <br />• Setelah DTE asal menerima paket Call Accepted, virtual circuit akan terbentuk dan data lalu ditransfer. Ketika DTE ingin mengakhiri sesi, sebuah paket Clear Request dikirim pada DTE pasangannya, yang akan menjawab dengan mengirim sebuah paket Clear Confirmation. Gambar 5 mengilustrasikan detail koneksi DTE-DCE seperti yang telah dijelaskan.<br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgRo87ERkSvTDpsAAsAffYie8_k1uHpDiWFZUf6PgpRgy_6J4vfKShKNkHTgA1aZgZMsEm3wAW8CsXh8T2TiAlzdIaQpn980L3x4o3-9IwwaPW2x07B1yCOsamV6G6xy8mz1u-T49akc9w/s1600-h/Langkah+Konektivitas+DTE-DCE.JPG"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 320px; height: 198px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgRo87ERkSvTDpsAAsAffYie8_k1uHpDiWFZUf6PgpRgy_6J4vfKShKNkHTgA1aZgZMsEm3wAW8CsXh8T2TiAlzdIaQpn980L3x4o3-9IwwaPW2x07B1yCOsamV6G6xy8mz1u-T49akc9w/s320/Langkah+Konektivitas+DTE-DCE.JPG" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5402882409710232738" /></a><br /><br />Gambar 5. Langkah Konektivitas DTE-DCE<br /><br /><br />• Tujuan tiap paket diidentifikasikan oleh Logical Channel Identifier (LCI) atau Logical Channel Number (LCN) . LCN ini mengidentifikasikan nomor aktual dari channel logic pada link DTE-DCE. LCN berukuran 8 bit dan direpresentasikan oleh nomor antar 0 hingga 255.<br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Packet Assembler/Disassembler </span><br /><br />• Packet assembler/disassembler (PAD) adalah sebuah device yang biasa digunakan pada jaringan X.25. PAD digunakan ketika sebuah decive DTE terlalu sederhana untuk mengimplementasikan fungsionalitas X.25 secara penuh. <br />• PAD diletakkan antara DTE dan DCE, dan melakukan tiga fungsi utama: buffering, penyusunan paket (assembly) serta penguraian paket (disassembly). PAD menyimpan data yang dikirim atau diterima oleh DTE. PAD juga menyusun data keluar menjadi paket dan memforwardnya ke DCE. Lalu PAD juga mengurai paket yang diterima sebelum memforward datanya ke DTE. Gambar 6 mengilustrasikan fungsi PAD ini.<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgPfTIHJsX2ihLJYelKDzOavSd0ZnVGaugOgDkfK6F2-seGAAdNHmCL4epOICqWo5RPI-Td_a5YQ10Os0oTv4bK29A9N-6ttiBzBcChufI8zLPhpZDkCdMWhAqR2O0bWep6Po_2PlJDFGE/s1600-h/Tiga+Fungsi+PAD+(Buffer,+Assembly+dan+Disassembly.JPG"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 320px; height: 162px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgPfTIHJsX2ihLJYelKDzOavSd0ZnVGaugOgDkfK6F2-seGAAdNHmCL4epOICqWo5RPI-Td_a5YQ10Os0oTv4bK29A9N-6ttiBzBcChufI8zLPhpZDkCdMWhAqR2O0bWep6Po_2PlJDFGE/s320/Tiga+Fungsi+PAD+(Buffer,+Assembly+dan+Disassembly.JPG" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5402882881303673586" /></a><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgRo87ERkSvTDpsAAsAffYie8_k1uHpDiWFZUf6PgpRgy_6J4vfKShKNkHTgA1aZgZMsEm3wAW8CsXh8T2TiAlzdIaQpn980L3x4o3-9IwwaPW2x07B1yCOsamV6G6xy8mz1u-T49akc9w/s1600-h/Langkah+Konektivitas+DTE-DCE.JPG"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 320px; height: 198px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgRo87ERkSvTDpsAAsAffYie8_k1uHpDiWFZUf6PgpRgy_6J4vfKShKNkHTgA1aZgZMsEm3wAW8CsXh8T2TiAlzdIaQpn980L3x4o3-9IwwaPW2x07B1yCOsamV6G6xy8mz1u-T49akc9w/s320/Langkah+Konektivitas+DTE-DCE.JPG" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5402882409710232738" /></a><br /><br />Gambar 6. Tiga Fungsi PAD (Buffer, Assembly dan Disassembly<br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Resume Karakteristik X.25</span><br /><br />• Ukuran paket maksimum dari X.25 berkisar antara 64 bytes sampai 4096 bytes, dengan ukuran default pada hampir semua network adalah 128 bytes.<br />• X.25 optimal untuk line kecepatan rendah, 100kbps kebawah. Karena fasilitas X.25 seperti ukuran paket yang kecil, pengecekan error tersembunyi dan lainnya tidak akan signifikan seperti halnya pada kecepatan rendah. <br />• X.25 telah menjadi dasar bagi pengembangan protokol paket switch lain seperti TCP/IP dan ATM. Sama seperti X.25, kedua protokol ini juga mempunyai kemampuan untuk meng-handle dari satu source ke banyak koneksi serta kemampuan menyamakan kecepatan pada DTE yang memiliki line speed yang berbeda. <br />• X.25 telah diciptakan sejak pertengahan tahun 70 dan sudah banyak diperbaiki sehingga stabil. Dikatakan bahwa tidak ada data error pada modem di network X.25 <br />• Kekurangan X.25 adalah delay tetap yang disebabkan oleh mekanisme store dan forward, sehingga menyebabkan pengaturan rate transmisi data. Frame Relay dan ATM tidak punya kontrol flow dan kontrol error sehingga waktu hubungan end-to-end bisa menjadi minimal.<br />• Penggunaan X.25 kini semakin berkurang, digantikan oleh sistem yang berbasis TCP/IP, walau X.25 masih banyak digunakan pada autorisasi Point-of-Sale credit card dan debit. <br />• Tetapi, ada mulai ada peningkatan pembangunan infrastruktur X.25 dengan investasi besar pada seluruh dunia. Sehingga mungkin, X.25 masih tetap penting untuk beberapa waktu kedepan.<br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Implementasi X.25</span><br /><br />Contoh cara mengkonfigurasi X.25 dengan perintah encapsulation pada cisco router:<br />• Router(config)#int s0<br />• Router(config-if)#encap x25<br />• Router(config-if)#x25 <address> adddress dengan metode X.121<br />• Router(config-if)#x25 ips <16-4096> ips adalah input packet size<br />• Router(config-if)#x25 win <1-127> win adalah window size<br /><br />Beberapa perintah yang dapat digunakan untuk memeriksa konfigurasi X.25 antara lain:<br />• Router#show x.25 map menampilkan peta alamat x.25<br />• Router#show x.25 route menampilkan tabel routing x.25<br />• Router#show x.25 vc menampilkan daftar SVC dan PVC aktif<br />• Router#show x.25 remote-red tampil mapping lokal&remote IPaddressWelcome To The Gie Iceman Zonehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08467823729991553473noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5716048184387339703.post-35896834439354558552009-11-11T07:39:00.000-08:002009-11-11T07:47:32.040-08:00TDM<span style="font-weight:bold;">Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)</span> adalah suatu jenis digital yang terdiri dari banyak bagian di mana teradapat dua atau lebih saluran yang sama diperoleh dari spektrum frekwensi yang diberikan yaitu, bit arus, atau dengan menyisipkan detakan-detakan yang mewakili bit dari saluran berbeda. Dalam beberapa TDM sistem, detakan yang berurutan menghadirkan bit dari saluran yang berurutan seperti saluran suara pada sistem T1. Pada sistem yang lainnya saluran-saluran yang berbeda secara bergiliran menggunakan saluran itu dengan membuat sebuah kelompok yang berdasarkan pada pulse-times (hal seperti ini disebut dengan time slot). Apakah yang menjadi ciri dari TDM yang tidak beraturan (kasar), adalah belum ditempatkannya time slot pada saluran-saluran ( channels ) yang telah ditentukan.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Contoh penggunaan TDM</span><br />• PDH dan SDH transmisi jaringan baku<br />• GSM pada sistem telepon<br />• Saluran kiri-kanan pada sebuah kacamata yang menggunakan cairan Stereoskopis Crystle<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">TDM </span>adalah rata-rata dari sinyal digital (sinyal analog yang membawa data digital) yang dapat dilaksanakan dengan alur transmisi tunggal dengan menyisipkan antar halaman bagian dari tiap sinyal pada waktunya. Penyisipkan dapat dilakukan pada bit atau blok bytes. Ini memungkinkan secara digital menyandi sinyal suara untuk dipancarkan dan diganti secara optimal dengan saklar sirkuit yang ada dalam sebuah jaringan. Artikel ini terdiri dari dua bagian yaitu Transmisi yang menggunakan TDM dan Synchronous Hirarki Digital ( SDH). Bagian yang pertama menguji prinsip dasar yang mendasari TDM, sedangkan bagian yang kedua mendiskusikan bagaimana SDH digunakan untuk mengganti tampilan TDM.<br /><br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Sejarah</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">TDM</span> adalah suatu teknik synchronous yang ditemukan sejak Perang Dunia II untuk meghubungkan percakapan antara Churchill dan Roosevelt yang terpisahkan oleh samudera atlantik. Pada awal tahun 1960-an, seorang ilmuwan dari Laboratorium Graham Bell telah mengembangkan sitem T1 yang pertama pada Saluran Bank yang mengkombinasikan 24 suara digital dalam membacakan daftar hadir melalui suatu 4 buah batang tembaga yang terletak diantara saklar analog pada kantor pusat milik G.Bell. Sebuah saluran bank memili kecepatan 1.544 Mbits/s sinyal digital. Setiap sinyalnya terdiri dari 24 byte dan setiap byte mewakili sebuah telepon tunggal dengan sinyal rata-rata 64 Kbits/s. Saluran suatu bank menggunakan beberapa byte dengan posisi yang telah ditentukan untuk menentukan suara yang mana termasuk ke dalamnya.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Transmisi menggunakan TDM</span><br />Di dalam sebuah sirkuit saklar untuk jaringan seperti pada jaringan telepon umum terdapat sebuah kebutuhan untuk memancarkan berbagai panggilan langganan sepanjang medium transmisi yang sama. Untuk memenuhi ini, para perancang jaringan menggunakan TDM. TDM menyertakan tombol (saklar) untuk menciptakan saluran (channel) yang dikenal sebagai anak sungai di dalam suatu arus transmisi. Sebuah sinyal standar suara mempunyai suatu luas bidang 64 kbit/s, yang ditentukan menggunakan Ukuran Sampling Nyquist'S. Jadi, jika layar (bingkai) TDM terdiri dari n (beberapa) layar (bingkai/frame) luas bidangnya atau bandwith-nya sebesar 64 Kbits/s.<br />Masing-masing suara dalam TDM disebut suatu saluran (channel) atau anak sungai. Di dalam sistem benua Eropa, TDM berisi 30 suara digital dan di dalam sistem Amerika, TDM berisi 24 suara digital. Kedua standar juga berisi ruang ekstra untuk memberi sinyal dan sinkhronisasi data.<br /><br />TDM yang lebih dari 24 atau 30 suara digital disebut Higher Order Multiplexing (HOM).HOM terpunuhi atas standar dari TDM. Sebagai contoh, 120 saluran TDM milik benua Eropa dibentuk dengan terdiri dari empat standar baku yang terdiri dari 30 saluran TDM setiap standar bakunya. Pada masing-masing HOM, 4 TDM dari urutan yang lebih rendah dikombinasikan. Sebuah sinyal standar suara mempunyai suatu luas bidang n x 64 kbit/s, di mana n = 120, 480, 1920<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Synchronous Hirarki Digital (SDH)</span><br />Plesiochronous Hirarki Digital (PDH) telah dikembangkan sebagai standard untuk HOM. PDH menciptakan angka-angka saluran yang lebih besar dengan standarisasi 30 saluran chanel TDM yang digunakan di Eropa. Solusi ini bekerja hanya sesaat karena masih terdapat banyak kelemahan sehingga diciptakan SDH.Hal-hal yang dapat membantu pengembangan SDH antara lain :<br />• Jadilah synchronous - Semua waktu di dalam sistem itu mengikuti suatu jam (waktu) acuan.<br />• SDH harus mengarahkan akhir pertukaran ke akhir pertukaran lagi tanpa kekhawatiran akan pertukaran di tengahnya, di mana lebar pita (bandwith) dapat dipesan pada suatu tingkatan untuk suatu periode waktu yang telah ditetapkan.<br />• Ikutkan layar (frame) dari berbagai jenis ukuran untuk dipindahkan atau dimasukkan ke dalam SDH.<br />• Sangat mudah untuk dikendalikan dengan kemampuan memindahkan data manajemen ke jaringan yang lain.<br />• Periapkan pemulihan tingkat tinggi dari kesalahan.<br />• Perisapkan rata - rata data dengan level tinggi dengan berbagai ukuran,<br />• Berikan penanggulangan terhadap bit eror.<br /><br />SDH telah menjadi protokol transmisi yang utama di kebanyakan jaringan telepon umum.Hal itu telah dikembangkan untuk mengikuti arus 1.544 Mbit/S agar supaya tercipta SDH yang lebih besar yang dikenal dengan Synchronous Transport Modules (STM). STM-1 terdiri dari arus lebih kecil yaitu 155,52 Mbit/S. SDH dapat disamakan dengan Ethernet, PPP dan ATM.<br /><br /><br />Selagi SDH dianggap sebagai suatu protokol transmisi ( lapisan 1 pada model OSI), SDH juga memberikan beberepa fungsi seperti :<br /><br />• SDH Crossconnect : adalah sebuah versi SDH dari Time-Space-Time. Ia menghubungkan beberapa saluran pada beberapa masukan untuk dimasukkan ke beberapa saluran pada beberapa keluarannya. SDH Crossconnect digunakan pada perpindahan pertukaran, di mana semua masukan dan keluaran dihubungkan ke pertukaran lainnya.<br />• SDH Add-Drop Multipiplexer : SDH - ADM dapat menambahkan atau mengeluarkan setiap multiplexed sampai 1.544Mb. Di bawah tingkatan ini, TDM standar dapat dilakukan. SDH-ADM dapat juga melaksanakan tugas dari sebuah SDH Crossconnect dan digunakan pada pertukaran akhir di mana saluran dari para langganan dihubungkan langsung ke jaringan telepon umum.<br /><br />Jaringan SDH memiliki fungsi untuk menghubungkan penggunaan serat optik dengan kecepatan tinggi. Serat optik menggunakan denyut/detak cahaya untuk memindahkan data dan memang prosesnya sangat cepat . Perpindahan serat optik secara modern menghasilkan Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) atau pembagian gelombang yang sangat panjang di mana sinyal dipancarkan ke seberang dengan panjang gelombang yang berbeda, sehingga harus menciptakan saluran tambahan untuk keperluan transmisi.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Statistical Time-division Multiplexing (STDM)</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">STDM</span> adalah lanjuatan versi dari TDM di mana alamat terminal kedua-duanya dan data dirinya dipancarkan bersama-sama untuk menghasilkan sebuah jalur yang lebih baik. Penggunaan STDM membolehkan luas bidang (bandwith) untuk dipisah menjadi 1 baris. Banyak perguruan tinggi dan kampus menggunakan TDM jenis ini untuk secara mendistribusikan luas bidang (bandwith-nya). Jika ada satu 10MBit yang masuk ke dalam sebuah bangunan, STDM dapat digunakan untuk menyediakan 178 terminal dengan 56k koneksi ( 178* 56k= 9.96Mb). Suatu penggunaan yang lebih umum bagaimanapun adalah hanya mewariskan luas bidang (bandwith) ketika itu banyak diperlukan.Welcome To The Gie Iceman Zonehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08467823729991553473noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5716048184387339703.post-30396207849423519182009-11-11T07:31:00.000-08:002009-11-11T07:37:09.761-08:00Pengertian Frequency Division Multiplexing<span style="font-weight:bold;">Pengertian Frequency Division Multiplexing</span><br /><br />Sebelum membahas mengenai Frequency Division Multiplexing ada baiknya membahas tentang apa itu multiplexing. <span style="font-weight:bold;">Multiplexing<span style="font-style:italic;"></span></span> adalah suatu teknik menggabungkan beberapa sinyal secara bersamaan pada suatu saluran transmisi. Di sisi penerima, pemisahan gabungan sinyal tersebut sesuai dengan tujuan masing-masing disebut <span style="font-weight:bold;">Demultiplexing<span style="font-style:italic;"></span></span>. Dalam multiplexing, perangkat yang memalukan multiplexing disebut <span style="font-weight:bold;">Multiplexer<span style="font-style:italic;"></span></span> atau disebut juga dengan istilah <span style="font-weight:bold;">Transceiver/Mux<span style="font-style:italic;"></span></span>. Receiver atau perangkat yang melakukan Demultiplexing disebut dengan Demultiplexer atau disebut juga dengan istilah <span style="font-weight:bold;">Demux<span style="font-style:italic;"></span></span>. Multiplexer mengkombinasikan (me-multiplex) data dari n input dan mentransmisi melalui kapasitas data link yang tinggi. Demultiplexer menerima aliran data yang di-multiplex (pemisahan (demultiplex) dari data tersebut tergantung pada saluran) dan mengirimnya ke line output yang diminta.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Jenis-Jenis Multiplexing</span><br />1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)<br />2. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)<br />3. Statistical Time Division Multiplexing (STDM)<br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)</span><br /><br />Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) adalah teknik menggabungkan banyak saluran input menjadi sebuah saluran output berdasarkan frekuensi. Jadi total bandwith dari keseluruhan saluran dibagi menjadi sub-sub saluran oleh frekuensi. Tiap sinyal modulasi memerlukan bandwidth center tertentu disekitar frekuensi carriernya, dinyatakan sebagai suatu saluran (channel). Sinyal input baik analog maupun digital akan ditransmisikan melalui medium dengan sinyal analog.<br /><br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Proses Multiplexing FDM Proses Demultiplexing FDM </span><br /><br />Pada sistem FDM, umumnya terdiri dari 2 peralatan terminal dan penguat ulang saluran transmisi (repeater transmission line):<br /><br />1.Peralatan Terminal (Terminal Equipment) Peralatan terminal terdiri dari bagian yang mengirimkan sinyal frekuensi ke repeater dan bagian penerima yang menerima sinyal tersebut dan mengubahnya kembali menjadi frekuensi semula.<br /><br />2.Peralatan Penguat Ulang (Repeater Equipment) Repeater equipment terdiri dari penguat (amplifier) dan equalizer yang fungsinya masing-masing untuk mengkompensir redaman dan kecacatan redaman (attenuation distortion), sewaktu transmisi melewati saluran melewati saluran antara kedua repeater masing-masing.<br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Contoh Penggunaan FDM</span><br /><br />Pada penyiaran radio yang menggunakan gelombang FM, frekuensi mulai dari 88 MHz s/d 108 MHz digunakan untuk penyiaran radio FM komersil. Frekuensi 88-108 MHz dibagi ke sub-band 200 KHz. Bandwidth dengan frekuensi 200 KHz sudah mencukupi untuk penyiaran radio FM dengan kualitas yang tinggi. Stasiun radio dapat dikenali dengan frekuensi pusat dari saluran masing-masing (ex: 91.5 MHz, 103.7 MHz). Sistem ini dapat memungkinkan pendengar radio mendengar sekitar 100 stasiun radio yang berlainan. Contoh lain dari penggunaan FDM: pada jaringan telepon analog dan jaringan satelit analog. Selain itu ide dasar FDM digunakan dalam teknologi saluran pelanggan digital yang dikenal dengan modem ADSL (Asymetric Digital Subcriber Loop ).<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Kelebihan & Kekurangan FDM</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Kelebihan</span>:<br />• FDM tidak sensitif terhadap perambatan /perkembangan keterlambatan. Tehnik persamaan saluran (channel equalization) yang diperlukan untuk sistem FDM tidak sekompleks seperti yang digunakan pada sistem TDM.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Kekurangan:</span><br />• Adanya kebutuhan untuk memfilter bandpass, yang harganya relatif mahal dan rumit untuk dibangun (penggunaan filter tersebut biasanya digunakan dalam transmitter dan receiver)<br />• Penguat tenaga (power amplifier) di transmitter yang digunakan memiliki karakteristik nonlinear (penguat linear lebih komplek untuk dibuat), dan amplifikasi nonlinear mengarah kepada pembuatan komponen spektral out-of-band yang dapat mengganggu saluran FDM yang lain.Welcome To The Gie Iceman Zonehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08467823729991553473noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5716048184387339703.post-22240225506127273712009-11-08T14:06:00.001-08:002009-11-08T14:07:10.953-08:00SQUID<p style="text-align: center;" mce_style="text-align: center;"><b>SQUID</b></p> <p>Squid adalah sebuah daemon yang digunakan sebagai proxy server dan web cache. Squid memiliki banyak jenis penggunaan, mulai dari mempercepat server web dengan melakukan caching permintaan yang berulang-ulang, caching DNS , caching situs web, dan caching pencarian komputer di dalam jaringan untuk sekelompok komputer yang menggunakan sumber daya jaringan yang sama, hingga pada membantu keamanan dengan cara melakukan penyaringan (filter) lalu lintas. Meskipun seringnya digunakan untuk protokol HTTP dan FTP, Squid juga menawarkan dukungan terbatas untuk beberapa protokol lainnya termasuk Transport Layer Security (TLS), Secure Socket Layer (SSL), Internet Gopher,dan HTTPS. Versi Squid 3.1 mencakup dukungan protokol IPv6 dan Internet Content Adaptation Protocol (ICAP).</p> <p>Squid pada awalnya dikembangkan oleh<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);" mce_style="color: #000000;"> Duane Wessels </span> sebagai "Harvest object cache", yang merupakan bagian dari proyek Harvest yang dikembangkan di University of Colorado at Boulder. Pekerjaan selanjutnya dilakukan hingga selesai di University of California,San Diego dan didanai melalui National Science Foundation . Squid kini hampir secara eksklusif dikembangkan dengan cara usaha sukarela.</p> <p>Squid umumnya didesain untuk berjalan di atas sistem operasi mirip UNIX, meski Squid juga bisa berjalan di atas sistem operasi Windows. Karena dirilis di bawah lisensi GNU General Public License , maka Squid merupakan perangkat lunak bebas.</p> <p><b>Setting Proxy Server Squid pada Ubuntu</b></p> <p>Cara menyeting squid pada ubuntu</p> <ul><li>Sebelum mensetting squid pada ubuntu langkah pertama adalah ketikkan perintah <b>dmesg | grep eth</b> yang digunakan untuk mendeklarasikan penggunaan ada tidaknya LAN card atau jumlah Ethernet card pada komputer yang digunakan. Perintah diatas tersebut digunakan untuk memberitahukan terdapat adanya Ethernet card dengan nama <b>eth0, </b>lalu perintah<b> sudo ifconfig atau ifconfig </b>digunakan untuk mengkonfigurasi interface network. Ip address yang digunakan server adalah <b>192.168.0.1</b> dan client memiliki <b>192.168.0.3.</b> Kemudian setelah itu ketikkan perintah Ping,dan untuk menghentikan proses ping tekan tombol control C maka proses ping akan berhenti.</li></ul> <table class="mceItemTable" align="left" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody> <tr> <td width="149" height="1"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td><br /></td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <ul><li> Setelah itu masuk ke langkah 2 ialah dengan merubah ip dan ketikkan perintah”sudo su”, kemudian install squid nya, dengan mengetikkan perintah ”<b>apt-get install squid”. </b></li></ul> <ul><li>Langkah selanjutnya adalah melakukan backup data squid karena jika terjadi kesalahan, kita masih dapat menggunakan kembali squid yang sudah terinsntall sebelumnya dengan mengetikkan perintah copy CP_[nama_direktori] : <b>cp /etc/squid/squid.conf /etc/squid/squid.conf.original</b> pada terminal.<b> Setelah selesai melakukan backup </b>Squid,lakukan konfigurasi squid dengan mengetikkan perintah <b>vi /etc/squid/squid.conf</b>,yang dimana hasilnya terlihat seperti gambar di bawah ini :</li></ul> <table class="mceItemTable" align="left" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody> <tr> <td width="157" height="32"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td><br /></td> <td><br /></td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <table class="mceItemTable" align="left" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody> <tr> <td width="156" height="13"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td><br /></td> <td width="362" bgcolor="white" height="265"> <table class="mceItemTable" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody> <tr> <td>http_port 8888 transparent<br />http_access allow all<br />cache_mem 32 MB<br />cache_dir ufs /var/spool/squid 1600 4 256<br />negative_ttl 2 minutes<br />maximum_object_size 1024 KB<br />mimum_object_size 4 KB<br />visible_hostname myServer<br />http_access allow manager localhost<br />cache_swap_low 80<br />cache_swap_high 100</td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <ul><li>Langkah selanjutnya adalah melakukan proses filtering (penyaringan) yang digunakan untuk mengatur aturan-aturan tertentu dari siapa saja yang bisa mengakses internet sampai website apa yang diizinkan untuk di akses. Maksud dari perintah <b>Access List</b><b> </b>ialah digunakan untuk mendeklarasikan siapa saja yang berhak mengakses Internet dengan mengetikkan perintah : <b>acl user src 192.168.1.1/255.255.255.255</b> yang dimana perintah acl digunakan untuk mendeklarasikan perintah access list, perintah user digunakan untuk mendeklarasikan nama user yang memiliki IP / group, perintah src digunakan untuk mendeklarasikan source ip yang digunakan,kemudian jika ingin menggunakan range dan membuat group ketikkan perintah <b>acl group-it src 192.168.1.1-192.168.1.12/255.255.255.255.</b></li></ul> <p><b> </b></p> <ul><li>Langkah selanjutnya adalah mensetup Proxy dengan mengetikkan perintah ip table yang digunakan untuk meredirect port yang ada pada komputer client. Maksud dari redirect adalah jika squid di set pada port 3128, maka permintaan client pada umumnya berada pada port 80 maka harus meredirect port 80 dari client tersebut ke port proxy yang berada pada port 3128. Maksud dari perintah IP Forwarding digunakan untuk mendeklarasikan agar transparent proxy dapat dijalankan,harus mengaktifkan Ip Forwarding dengan memberikan nilai 1 pada file “/proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_forward” dengan cara mengetikkan perintah <b>echo 1 > /proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_forward,</b> kemudian jalankan ip_tables agar client bisa meredirect port squid server dengan mengetikkan perintah : <b>iptables -A PREROUTING -t nat -p tcp –dport 80 -j REDIRECT –to-port 3128.</b>Kemudian restart proxy dengan mengetikkan perintah <b>squid -k reconfigure.</b></li></ul> <p><b>BERIKUT CARA LAIN MENSETTING PROXY SERVER SQUID PADA UBUNTU</b></p> <p><b> </b></p> <p>1) <b>Update path repository untuk mendapatkan source terbaru</b></p> <p><i>$sudo apt-get update</i></p> <p>2) <b>Mengunduh berkas dan menginstall</b></p> <p><i>$sudo apt-install squid</i></p> <p>3) <b>Backup script squid yg asli jika mengalami error saat di edit bisa di gunakan lagi script squid default</b></p> <p><i>$sudo cp /etc/squid/squid.conf /etc/squid/squid.conf.original</i></p> <p>4) <b>Edit sesuai kebutuhan file konfigurasi squid</b></p> <p><i>$sudo vi /ect/squid/squid.conf</i></p> <p>dalam file text di url tersebut sudah ada sedikit petunjuk di setiap konfigurasi.</p> <p>5) <b>Membuat file log dan direktory untuk cache</b></p> <ul><li>Membuat direktori squid</li></ul> <p><i>$ mkdir /usr/local/squid</i></p> <ul><li>Membuat direktori cache</li></ul> <p><i>$ mkdir /usr/local/squid/cache</i></p> <ul><li>Membuat file cache log yg berfungsi untuk melihat dan memonitoring aktivitas yg</li></ul> <p><i>sedang di lakukan client</i></p> <p><i>$touch /usr/local/squid/cache.log</i></p> <ul><li>Membuat file access log berfungsi untuk memonitoring aktivitas yg dilakukan oleh cache server</li></ul> <p><i>$touch /usr/local/squid/access.log</i></p> <ul><li>Membuat user dan group squid sebagai pemilik dari proses squid dan logingnya, ini dibuat dengan alasan keamanan jika sistem squid diserang cracker dan bisa di akses oleh cracker bukan root yg di ambil alih</li></ul> <p><i>$sudo adduser squid</i></p> <ul><li>Memberikan attribut dan hak milik atas direktori squid berserta sub sub direktori + file file yg ada didalamnya</li></ul> <p><i>$chown -Rf squid.squid /usr/local/squid</i></p> <p><i>$sudo chown squid.squid /var/spool/squid -Rf</i></p> <p><i>$ sudo chown squid.squid -Rf /etc/squid</i></p> <p>6) <b>Membuat struktur cache directory</b></p> <p><a href="mailto:root@bagongnet:" mce_href="mailto:root@bagongnet:">root@bagongnet:</a>/etc/squid# squid -z</p> <p>2009/05/19 05:19:49| Squid is already running! Process ID 4971</p> <p>7) <b>Test Squid</b></p> <p><a href="mailto:root@bagongnet:" mce_href="mailto:root@bagongnet:">root@bagongnet:</a>/etc/squid# squid -d 1 -D</p> <p>2009/05/19 05:20:55| Squid is already running! Process ID 4971</p> <p>8) <b>Menjalankan Squid</b></p> <p><a href="mailto:root@bagongnet:" mce_href="mailto:root@bagongnet:">root@bagongnet:</a>/etc/squid# squid -sYD</p> <p>2009/05/19 05:21:37| Squid is already running! Process ID 4971</p> <p>9) <b>Melihat log access client</b></p> <p><a href="mailto:root@bagongnet:%7E#" mce_href="mailto:root@bagongnet:%7E#">root@bagongnet:~# </a>tail -f /usr/local/squid/access.log</p> <p>1242725175.667 1212 192.168.0.200 TCP_MISS/302 898 GET</p> <p><a href="http://www.google.com/search" mce_href="http://www.google.com/search">http://www.google.com/search</a>?q=install+squid+ubuntu&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-</p> <p>8&aq=t&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&client=firefox-a - DIRECT/74.125.19.147</p> <p>text/html</p>Welcome To The Gie Iceman Zonehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08467823729991553473noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5716048184387339703.post-28164042986963596172009-11-08T14:05:00.000-08:002009-11-08T14:06:26.754-08:00IMPLEMENTASI VIDEO CONFERENCE<p><b><u>VIDEO CONFERENCE</u></b></p> <p><i>Video conference</i> merupakan suatu teknologi telekomunikasi interaktif yang memungkinkan dua lokasi atau lebih untuk berinteraksi lewat video dan audio secara simultan. Perguruan Tinggi Negeri dapat bergabung dengan jaringan INHERENT yang disediakan Dikti Departemen Pendidikan Nasional Indonesia yang mendukung Perguruan Tinggi Negeri dengan memberikan fasilitas <i>video conference</i>. <i>Video conference</i> mempunyai banyak manfaat bagi aktivitas pendidikan mahasiswa dan dosen, yang dapat mengurangi biaya perjalanan, menghemat waktu, memberikan dan saling bertukar informasi dan pengetahuan yang baru. Implementasi yang dilakukan oleh Perguruan Tinggi Negeri, seperti UI, ITB, UGM, dll. adalah kuliah umum, diskusi dengan Perguruan Tinggi dari luar Indonesia, seminar untuk bertukar informasi dan pengetahuan antar Perguruan Tinggi.</p> <p><i>Video conference</i> yang juga dikenal dengan <i>video teleconference </i>adalah suatu teknologi telekomunikasi interaktif yang memungkinkan dua lokasi atau lebih untuk berinteraksi lewat video dan audio secara simultan. <i>Video conference</i> berbeda dengan <i>videophone</i> yang memang di desain untuk melayani video antar dua orang secara individu. Teknologi utama yang digunakan dalam sistem <i>video</i> <i>conference </i>adalah kompresi digital dari suara dan <i>video stream</i> yang <i>real time</i>.</p> <p>Teknologi <i>video conference</i> tidak lepas dari kemajuan teknologi kompresi audio dan video. Dengan banyaknya teknik kompresi yang ada saat ini memungkinkan audio dan video dapat dikirim secara bersamaan dalam jaringan dengan bandwidth yang seefisien mungkin dan dengan kualitas yang dapat diterima. <i>Hardware </i>atau <i>software </i>yang melakukan fungsi kompresi disebut dengan <i>codec</i>(coder/decoder). <i>Codec</i> merupakan singkatan dari compresi-decompresi yang merupakan proses pembungkusan suara ataupun video analog menjadi data digital dengan metoda tertentu sehinggga pengiriman suara atau video dapat dilakukan dalam bentuk paket-paket data. <i>Codec</i> dapat melewatkan suara atau video dalam jaringan IP dengan bandwidth yang kecil dan kualitas yang masih dapat diterima.</p> <p>Beberapa contoh standar <i>codec</i> yang sering digunakan dalam komunikasi diantaranya:</p> <ol><li>Untuk Audio</li></ol> <p>G.711 ulaw / alaw, G.729,GSM, G.723, dll.</p> <ol><li>Untuk Video</li></ol> <p>H.261, H.263, H.264, dll.</p> <p>Layanan <i>Video Conference </i>bersifat seketika dengan <i>resolusi </i>yang baik dan interaktif. Pada jaringan digital, pengiriman suara membutuhkan kecepatan sekitar 64 Kbps dan pengiriman <i>video </i>membutuhkan kecepatan 1,5-2 Mbps. Untuk layanan <i>video conference</i> secara keseluruhan akan dibutuhkan kecepatan pengiriman sekitar 9,2 Mbps.</p> <p>Komponen – komponen yang dibutuhkan untuk sebuah sistem <i>video conference</i> di antaranya :</p> <p><u>1. </u><u><b>Hardware</b></u></p> <p>o Video input : camera video atau webcam</p> <p>o Video output : monitor computer atau proyektor</p> <p>o Audio input : microphones</p> <p>o Audio output : speaker atau headphone</p> <p>o Media transfer data : LAN atau Internet</p> <p><u><b>2. Software</b></u></p> <p>Salah satu jenis contoh software adalah Access Grid dan yang terbaru dari</p> <p>software tersebut adalah Access Grid 3.2 beta 1<i> </i></p> <p><i>Video Conference</i> mempunyai beberapa jenis, antara lain:</p> <ol><li><i>Distributed Video Conference </i></li></ol> <p>Adalah suatu sistem <i>video conference</i> yang terdiri dari beberapa <i>client </i>yang melakukan konferensi secara langsung antar <i>client</i> yang saling berhubungan tanpa melalui sentral / control unit sebagai pengatur. <i>Server </i>disini berfungsi untuk proses <i>call setup</i> dan <i>handshaking</i>. Keuntungannya video dan audio yang dikirimkan mempunyai kualitas yang bagus karena tanpa direlay ke <i>control unit</i> dahulu.</p> <p>2. <i>Centralized Video Conference </i></p> <p>Adalah suatu sistem <i>video conference </i>yang melibatkan beberapa client dengan satu <i>MCU (Multiparty Control Unit</i>) untuk memfasilitasi konferensi tersebut.<i>MCU </i>disini berfungsi sebagai pengatur dan pengendali yang melaksanakan proses seperti <i>audio mixing</i>, <i>video switching dan mixing</i> serta distribusi data dalam konferensi <i>multipoint </i>dan mengirimkan kembali datanya ke terminal yang berpartisipasi. MCU juga menyediakan pertukaran antara <i>codec</i> yang berbeda dan mungkin menggunakan <i>multicast </i>untuk mendistribusikan videoyang telah diproses. Dari jenis tersebut, maka <i>video confererence</i> pada perguruan tinggi negeri di</p> <p>Indonesia adalah <i>Centralized Video Conference.</i></p> <p style="text-align: center;" mce_style="text-align: center;"><b>Kelebihan dan Kekurangan Video Conference pada Perguruan Tinggi</b> <b>Negeri di Indonesia</b></p> <p style="text-align: center;" mce_style="text-align: center;"><b><br /></b></p> <p><b><i>a.</i></b> <b>Kelebihan <i>Video Conference </i></b></p> <p>1. Pertemuan-pertemuan yang dilakukan, seperti kuliah umum</p> <p>dengan dosen/bernarasumber internasional atau seminar dari satu</p> <p>negara dengan negara lain dapat secara online sehingga akan</p> <p>menghemat biaya dan waktu.</p> <p>2. Informasi dan pengetahuan dapat berkembang dengan melakukan</p> <p>pertemuan atau diskusi dengan PT terbaik dalam negeri maupun</p> <p>luar negeri</p> <p>3. Tatap muka jarak jauh menjadi terasa lebih nyata</p> <p>4. Sebagai pendukung program <i>e-learning</i> PT</p> <p>5. PT dapat saling berbagi resource</p> <p><b>b.</b> <b>Kekurangan</b> <b><i>Video Conference</i></b></p> <p>1. <i>E-learning</i> yang dilakukan akan kurang efektif dengan bantuan</p> <p>video conference, karena kurang nyata dan belajar itu perlu</p> <p>pemahaman langsung</p> <p>2. Bahasa sebagai alat komunikasi yang dimiliki oleh PTN dalam</p> <p>negeri berbeda dengan PT luar negeri</p> <p style="text-align: center;" mce_style="text-align: center;"><b>Alasan Memilih Penggunaan dan Pemanfaatan</b> <b><i>Video Conference</i></b> <b>daripada dengan via Konvensional pada Perguruan Tinggi Negeri di</b> <b>Indonesia</b></p> <p>Seperti yang telah kita ketahui bahwa banyak manfaat dari pemilihan <i>video </i></p> <p><i>conference</i>. Dengan <i>video conference</i> akan mendukung mobilitas dari para</p> <p>pengguna, perbedaan tempat tidak menjadi masalah. <i>Video conference</i> yang</p> <p>digunakan oleh perguruan tinggi negeri akan menghemat waktu yang di mana</p> <p>para dosen tidak perlu datang ke kampus apabila mengajar, mempermudah</p> <p>pertemuan beda negara dalam kuliah umum, diskusi, maupun seminar-seminar,dan akan memberikan informasi dan pengetahuan terbaru. Sedangkan apabila dengan via konvensial, pengadaan kuliah umum beda negara akan sangat tidak mungkin, apabila mugkin terjadi juga akan menelan biaya yang besar, selain itu juga akan menghabiskan waktu.</p> <p style="text-align: center;" mce_style="text-align: center;"><b>Implementasi <i>Video Conference</i> pada Perguruan Tinggi Negeri di Indonesia</b></p> <p>Perguruan Tinggi Negeri di Indonesia telah berada di suatu jaringan komputer yang disediakan oleh Direktorat Jenderal Pendidikan Tinggi (Dikti) Departemen Pendidikan Nasional Indonesia atas rumusan rancangan bersama dari Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Universitas Indonesia (UI), Universitas Gajah Mada (UGM) dan Institut Teknologi Surabaya (ITS). Kemudian setelah dilaksanakan tender, maka terpilih PT Telkom sebagai penyedia infrastruktur jaringan, serta PT Multipolar sebagai Partner dari Cisco System yang menyediakan perangkat Jaringan. Jaringan yang dibuat adalah sebuah jaringan <i>backbone</i> yang menyambungkan 32 perguruan tinggi negeri yang ada di masing-masing propinsi di seluruh Indonesia pada tahun 2006 yang dinamakan INHERENT (Indonesia Higher Education Network) yang tujuan dan fungsi utama jaringan ini adalah untuk meningkatkan mutu pendidikan tinggi di Indonesia melalui pemanfaatan teknologi informasi dan komunikasi (TIK) untuk menunjang kegiatan tridarma serta pengelolaan perguruan tinggi. Jaringan ini terdiri dari <i>backbone</i> fiber optik STM-1 berkecepatan 155 Mbps untuk interkoneksi antara universitas di pulau Jawa, serta <i>backbone leased channel</i> berkecepatan 8 Mbps untuk universitas di pulau Sumatera, Kalimantan,Sulawesi serta Bali dan Nusa Tenggara. Universitas di daerah Indonesia Timur mendapatkan akses satelit dari Jakarta dengan kecepatan 2 Mbps antar perguruan tinggi misalnya dimanfaatkan untuk keperluan pembelajaran jarak jauh (<i>distance learning</i>), khususnya berbasis TIK (<i>e-learning</i>). Slogan INHERENT adalah open access, open content dan opensource. <i> </i></p> <p><i>Video conference</i></p> <p>memuat 3 elemen itu secara langsung.</p> <ul><li> Open access : setiap perguruan tinggi yang punya koneksi, bisa daftar untuk berpartisipasi.</li><li>Open content : diskusi video conference terbuka untuk dilihat siapa saja yang berminat.</li><li> Opensource : siapa saja boleh merekam, mengolah dan menyebarluaskan tayangan <i>video conference</i>.</li></ul> <p>Peralatan yang digunakan dalam fasilitas <i>Video Conference</i> pada jaringan</p> <p>INHERENT bagi PT adalah:<sup>11</sup></p> <p>1. Video Conference End-Point</p> <p>• Diutamakan koneksi IP (tidak perlu ISDN), conference koneksi 4-6 node</p> <p>• Spesifikasi kamera: Pan Tilt Zoom harus bagus!</p> <p>• Spesifikasi koneksi/signaling: H323/SIP support bandwidth</p> <p>64 kbps-1Mbps</p> <p>• Auto NAT H.460.18, H.460.19 Firewall Traversal</p> <p>• Spesifikasi Video: H263/H264, baiknya support 16:9 (untuk widescreen)</p> <p>Contohnya:</p> <p>• Alat Vicon:</p> <p>Contoh : Polycom FSX 7000, Tandberg 550 MPX, Sony PCS-1, dll</p> <p>• Penting harusnya sudah termasuk:</p> <p>People+Content (Visual Concert, istilah Polycom)</p> <p>• Perlengkapan: Wide Screen LCD Monitor atau LCD projector</p> <p>Video Camera</p> <p>• Renovasi ruang</p> <p>2. PC Desktop</p> <p>• Support Linux, prosesor minimal setara Intel Core 2 Duo atau yang</p> <p>setara; disarankan 64 bit<sup>5</sup></p> <p>• Memory minimal 512M</p> <p>• Hardisk minimal 80 G</p> <p>• DVD RW</p> <p>• Ethernet card 10/100/1000</p> <p>• Video: 3D Accelerator (Intel, nVidia, dsb.)</p> <p>• Monitor 17” LCD</p> <p>3. PC Notebook</p> <p>• Support Linux</p> <p>• Berat maksimum 2 kg</p> <p>• Memory minimal 512M</p> <p>• Hardisk minimal 60G</p> <p>• VGA: Support 3D accelerator</p> <p>• Networking: Wi-Fi ready, EtherNET Card 10/100</p> <p>• Serial port (untuk console maintenance)</p> <p>4. Server</p> <p>• Prosesor: minimal Intel Xeon 64 bit atau yang setara</p> <p>• Memory: minimal 2 G</p> <p>• Hardisk: SCSI/SAS aplikasi banyak transaksi, SATA</p> <p>Aplikasi storage besar</p> <p>• Lan: 10/100/1000</p> <p>• Disarankan rackmount</p> <p>Contoh implementasi penggunaan dan pemanfaatan dari <i>video conference</i></p> <p>perguruan-perguruan tinggi negeri dengan menggunakan jaringan INHERENT</p> <p>1. <i>Video Conference</i> Seminar, contohnya: Seminar Teknologi Grid</p> <p>Computing yang diselenggarakan oleh Sun Microsystem bekerjasama</p> <p>dengan Universitas Indonesia, disaksikan oleh empat universitas (ITB,</p> <p>Unibraw, UNDIP dan UGM).</p> <p>2. Aktivitas <i>Video Conference</i> untuk rapat antara Dikti dengan Universitas</p> <p>penerima Hibah K-1</p> <p>3. 08 Mei 2007, Launching program CMDG dan GLAD yang dilakukan oleh</p> <p>ITB</p> <p>4. 23-02-2009, 10:00-12:00: GDLN UI dan FE UI akan mengadakan kembali</p> <p>studium generale bidang manajemen dengan topik Marketing in Crisis,</p> <p>pembicara: Rhenald Kasali, PhD.</p> <p>5. 25-02-2009, 15.00-16.00: Dikti bekerjasama dengan British Council akan</p> <p>mengadakan widya telewicara tentang perguruan tinggi di UK dalam 4</p> <p>sesi. Sesi keempat adalah tentang pendidikan Tourism & Hospitality</p> <p>related</p> <p>6. 14-10-2008, 09:00-12:00: UGM: Ekspose dan Diskusi Mengembangkan</p> <p>Kerja Sama Indonesia- Swedia dalam Pemanfaatan Limbah (Waste</p> <p>Refinery), program pemanfaatan limbah ini digagas oleh jurusan Teknik</p> <p>Kimia UGM bekerja sama dengan University of Boras dan Boras</p> <p>Municipality (Pemerintah Boras), Swedia</p> <p>7. 25-07-2008, 14.00-18.00: UGM-ITB-GDLN: International Video</p> <p>Workshop on Brick Masonry Structure. Sebagai bagian dari kerjasama</p> <p>antara Building Research Institute, Tokyo, dengan beberapa negara: Nepal,</p> <p>Pakistan dan Indonesia (UGM dan ITB)</p> <p>Selain di atas, ada contoh implementasi penggunaan dan pemenfaatan video</p> <p>conference yang tidak menggunakan jaringan INHERENT yaitu pada Universitas</p> <p>Indonesia:</p> <p>1. Video-Conference ALSA Universitas Indonesia dengan ALSA Waseda</p> <p>University, Jepang</p> <p>Pendidikan hukum tingkat sarjana (S1) di FHUI telah memasuki ke tingkat</p> <p>yang lebih tinggi dengan penggunaan fasilitas <i>Video Conference</i> yang</p> <p>tersedia di Ruang Multimedia Soemadipradja & Taher.</p> <p>Asian Law Student Association (ALSA) Komite Lokal Universitas</p> <p>Indonesia yang pertama kali menyelenggarakan <i>Video Conference</i> dengan</p> <p>ALSA Waseda University, Jepang.</p> <p>Kegiatan yang berupa seminar antar mahasiswa ini dilakukan pada tanggal</p> <p>28 Juni 2007 yang membahas tema “Freedom of Religion”. Tema ini</p> <p>diangkat untuk mengetahui bagaimana praktek kebebasan beragama di</p> <p>kedua negara. Dengan demikian, dosen dan mahasiswa FHUI akan</p> <p>7memiliki kualitas sebanding dengan dosen dan mahasiswa berbagai</p> <p>fakultas hukum di mancanegara.</p> <p>2. <i>Video conference</i> dengan University of California, Berkeley</p> <p>Pada hari Kamis, 8 November 2007, telah diadakan acara <i>video conference</i></p> <p>dengan University of California, Berkeley. Acara ini berlangsung di ruang</p> <p>multimedia Soemadipradja & Taher mulai pukul 09.00 sampai 11.00 WIB.</p> <p>Acara ini merupakan kerjasama antara BEM FHUI dengan BSO ILMS.</p> <p>Dalam acara ini, peserta mendengarkan kuliah yang disampaikan oleh</p> <p>Prof. Andre T. Guzman mengenai topik yang diangkat dalam acara ini</p> <p>adalah Women’s Rights Under International Law atau Hak-hak Wanita</p> <p>Menurut Hukum Internasional. Prof. Andre T. Guzman adalah Profesor di</p> <p>bidang hukum yang saat ini mengajar di University of California, Berkeley</p> <p>(UC Berkeley).</p> <p>Hal-hal yang dibahas adalah mengenai diskriminasi terhadap wanita yang</p> <p>banyak terjadi di dunia pada masa sekarang ini. Untuk menanggulangi hal</p> <p>tersebut, disusunlah suatu konvensi wanita yang bernama <i>Convention on</i></p> <p><i>the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women</i>. Konvensi</p> <p>ini bertujuan untuk melindungi segala hak wanita yang</p> <p>terdiskriminasikan.</p>Welcome To The Gie Iceman Zonehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08467823729991553473noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5716048184387339703.post-86286745947154183602009-11-08T14:04:00.000-08:002009-11-08T14:05:45.206-08:00KEAMANAN JARINGAN<p><u><b>Tujuan Keamanan Jaringan Komputer </b></u></p> <p>• Availability / Ketersediaan</p> <p>• Reliability / Kehandalan</p> <p>• Confidentiality / Kerahasiaan</p> <p><u><b>Cara Pengamanan Jaringan Komputer </b></u></p> <p>– Autentikasi</p> <p>– Enkripsi</p> <p><b>Autentikasi </b></p> <p>• Proses pengenalan peralatan, sistem operasi, kegiatan, aplikasi dan identitas user yang terhubung dengan jaringan komputer • Autentikasi dimulai pada saat user login ke jaringan dengan cara memasukkan password.</p> <p><u><b>Tahapan Autentikasi </b></u></p> <p>1. Autentikasi untuk mengetahui lokasi dari peralatan pada suatu simpul jaringan (data link layer dan network layer).</p> <p>2. Autentikasi untuk mengenal sistem operasi yang terhubung ke jaringan (transport layer).</p> <p>3. Autentikasi untuk mengetahui fungsi/proses yang sedang terjadi di suatu simpul jaringan (session dan presentation layer).</p> <p>4. Autentikasi untuk mengenali user dan aplikasi yang digunakan (application layer).</p> <p><b><u>Enkripsi</u></b></p> <p>• Teknik pengkodean data yang berguna untuk menjaga data / file baik di dalam komputer maupun pada jalur komunikasi dari pemakai yang tidak dikehendaki.</p> <p>• Enkripsi diperlukan untuk menjaga kerahasiaan data.</p> <p><b><u>Teknik Enkripsi</u></b></p> <p>• DES (Data Encription Standard)</p> <p>• RSA (Rivest Shamir Adelman) Resiko Jaringan Komputer Segala bentuk ancaman baik fisik maupun logik yang langsung atau tidak langsung mengganggu kegiatan yang sedang berlangsung dalam jaringan.</p> <p><b><u>Faktor-faktor Penyebab Resiko Dalam Jaringan Komputer </u></b></p> <p>• Kelemahan manusia (human error)</p> <p>• Kelemahan perangkat keras komputer operasi jaringan jaringan komunikasi</p> <p>Ancaman Jaringan komputer</p> <p><u><b>FISIK</b></u></p> <p>- Pencurian perangkat keras komputer atau perangkat jaringan</p> <p>- Kerusakan pada komputer dan perangkat komunikasi jaringan</p> <p>- Wiretapping</p> <p>- Bencana alam</p> <p><b><u>LOGIK</u></b></p> <p>- Kerusakan pada sistem operasi atau aplikasi</p> <p>- Virus</p> <p>- Sniffing</p> <p><b><u>Beberapa Bentuk Ancaman Jaringan </u></b></p> <p>• <b> Sniffer </b></p> <p>Peralatan yang dapat memonitor proses yang sedang berlangsung</p> <p>•<b> Spoofing</b></p> <p>Penggunaan komputer untuk meniru (dengan cara menimpa identitas atau alamat IP.</p> <p>• <b>Remote Attack</b></p> <p>Segala bentuk serangan terhadap suatu mesin dimana penyerangnya tidak memiliki kendali terhadap mesin tersebut karena dilakukan dari jarak jaruh di luar sistem jaringan atau media transmisi.</p> <p>• <b>Hole </b></p> <p>Kondisi dari software atau hardware yang bisa diakses oleh pemakai yang tidak memiliki otoritas atau meningkatnya tingkat pengaksesan tanpa melalui proses otorisasi.</p> <p>• <b>Phreaking </b></p> <p>Perilaku menjadikan sistem pengamanan telepon melemah</p> <p>• <b>Hacker</b></p> <p>– Orang yang secara diam-diam mempelajari sistem yang biasanya sukar dimengerti untuk kemudian mengelolanya dan men-share hasil ujicoba yang dilakukannya.</p> <p>– Hacker tidak merusak sistem</p> <p>• <b>Craker </b></p> <p>– Orang yang secara diam-diam mempelajari sistem dengan maksud jahat</p> <p>– Muncul karena sifat dasar manusia yang selalu ingin membangun (salah satunya merusak)</p> <p>– <u><b>Ciri-ciri cracker</b></u> :</p> <p>• Bisa membuat program C, C++ atau pearl</p> <p>• Memiliki pengetahuan TCP/IP</p> <p>• Menggunakan internet lebih dari 50 jam per- bulan</p> <p>• Menguasai sistem operasi UNIX atau VMS</p> <p>• Suka mengoleksi software atau hardware lama</p> <p>• Terhubung ke internet untuk menjalankan aksinya</p> <p>• Melakukan aksinya pada malam hari, dengan alasan waktu yang memungkinkan, jalur komunikasi tidak padat, tidak mudah diketahui orang lain.</p> <p><b><u>Penyebab cracker melakukan penyerangan </u></b>:</p> <p>• spite, kecewa, balas dendam</p> <p>• sport, petualangan</p> <p>• profit, mencari keuntungan dari imbalan orang lain</p> <p>• stupidity, mencari perhatian</p> <p>• cruriosity, mencari perhatian</p> <p>• politics, alasan politis Ciri-ciri target yang dibobol cracker :</p> <p>• Sulit ditentukan</p> <p>• Biasanya organisasi besar dan financial dengan sistem pengamanan yang canggih</p> <p>• Bila yang dibobol jaringan kecil biasanya system pengamanannya lemah, dan pemiliknya baru dalam bidang internet.</p> <p>– <b><u>Ciri-ciri target yang “berhasil” dibobol cracker</u></b> :</p> <p>• Pengguna bisa mengakses, bisa masuk ke jaringan tanpa “nama” dan “password”</p> <p>• Pengganggu bisa mengakses, merusak, mengubah atau sejenisnya terhadap data</p> <p>• Pengganggu bisa mengambil alih kendali sistem</p> <p>• Sistem hang, gagal bekerja, reboot atau sistem berada dalam kondisi tidak dapat dioperasikan</p> <p><u><b>Istilah-istilah keamanan jaringan</b></u></p> <ul><li><b>Hacking</b> adalah usaha atau kegiatan di luar izin atau sepengetahuan pemilik jaringan untuk memasuki sebuah jaringan serta mencoba mencuri file seperti file password dan sebagainya. Atau usaha untuk memanipulasi data, mencuri file-file penting, atau mempermalukan orang lain dengan memalsukan user identity-nya. Pelakunya disebut <b>hacker</b> yang terdiri dari seorang atau sekumpulan orang yang secara berkelanjutan berusaha untuk menembus sistem pengaman kerja dari operating system suatu komputer.</li></ul> <ul><li><b>Cracker</b> adalah Seorang atau sekumpulan orang yang berniat untuk merusak dan menghancurkan integritas di seluruh jaringan sistem komputer dan tindakannya dinamakan cracking. Pada umumnya para cracker setelah berhasil masuk ke dalam jaringan komputer akan langsung melakukan kegiatan perusakan dan penghancuran data-data penting hingga menyebabkan kekacauan bagi para user dalam menggunakan komputernya.</li></ul> <p><b> </b></p> <p><b><u>Proses Serangan dan Alat yang digunakan</u></b></p> <p><i>Hackers</i> menggunakan beberapa aplikasi untuk mengumpulkan informasi yang diperlukan, misalnya dengan menggunakan:</p> <ul><li><i>Finger Protocol</i>: protokol ini memberikan informasi detail tentang user. <i> </i></li><li><i>Ping Program</i>: digunakan untuk melihat aktifasi hubungan dari satu host ke host yang lain.<b> </b><i> </i></li><li><i>SNMP</i>: digunakan untuk mengakses <i>routing table router</i> yang tidak diproteksi utk melihat topologi jaringan. <i> </i></li><li><i>Trace Route</i>: digunakan untuk melihat route jaringan yang digunakan penyerang menuju ke host yang dituju.</li></ul> <p><i> </i></p> <p><b> </b></p> <p><u><b>Tools jaringan yang digunakan</b></u></p> <ul><li><i>Internet Security Scanner</i> (ISS) atau <i>Security Analysis Tool for Auditing</i> (SATAN)</li></ul> <p>program ini akan menginformasikan kelemahan dari sistem yang dituju dan dapat melakukan scanning seluruh domain atau sub network.</p> <ul><li><i>TCP Wrapper</i> untuk memonitor jaringan komputer</li><li><i>Crack</i> untuk melakukan testing password security.</li><li><i>IP Scanner</i></li><li><i>IP Sniper</i></li><li><i>Network Analyzer</i></li></ul> <p><b> </b></p> <p><u><b>Bentuk Penyerangan</b></u></p> <ul><li><b><i>Denial of service</i></b>: Membanjiri suatu IP address dengan data sehingga menyebabkan <i>crash</i> atau kehilangan koneksinya ke internet.</li></ul> <p><b><i> </i></b></p> <ul><li><b><i>Distributed Denial of Service</i></b>: Memakai banyak komputer untuk meluncurkan serangan DoS. Seorang hacker “menculik” beberapa komputer dan memakainya sebagai platform untuk menjalankan serangan, memperbesar intensitasnya dan menyembunyikan identitas si <i>hacker</i>.</li></ul> <p><b><i> </i></b></p> <ul><li><b><i>Theft of Information</i></b>: Penyerang akan mencuri informasi rahasia dari suatu perusahaan. Hal ini dapat dilakukan dengan menggunakan program pembobol <i>password</i>, dan lain-lain.</li></ul> <ul><li><b><i>Corruption of Data</i></b>: Penyerang akan merusak data yang selama ini disimpan dalam harddisk suatu host.</li></ul> <p><b> </b></p> <p><b> </b></p> <ul><li><b>Spoofing</b>, yaitu sebuah bentuk kegiatan pemalsuan di mana seorang hacker memalsukan (<i>to masquerade</i>) identitas seorang user hingga dia berhasil secara ilegal logon atau login ke dalam satu jaringan komputer seolah-olah seperti user yang asli.</li></ul> <ul><li><b>Sniffer</b> adalah kata lain dari "network analyser" yang berfungsi sebagai alat untuk memonitor jaringan komputer. Alat ini dapat dioperasikan hampir pada seluruh tipe protokol seperti Ethernet, TCP/IP, IPX, dan lainnya.</li></ul> <ul><li><b>Password Cracker</b> adalah sebuah program yang dapat membuka enkripsi sebuah password atau sebaliknya malah untuk mematikan sistem pengamanan password.</li><li><b>Destructive Devices</b> adalah sekumpulan program virus yang dibuat khusus untuk melakukan penghancuran data-data, di antaranya Trojan Horse, Worms, Email Bombs, dan Nukes.</li></ul> <ul><li><b>Scanner</b> adalah sebuah program yang secara otomatis akan mendeteksi kelemahan (<i>security weaknesses</i>) sebuah komputer di jaringan lokal (local host) ataupun komputer di jaringan dengan lokasi lain (remote host). Oleh karena itu, dengan menggunakan program ini, seorang hacker yang secara fisik berada di Inggris dapat dengan mudah menemukan <i>security weaknesses</i> pada sebuah server di Amerika ataupun di belahan dunia lainnya, termasuk di Indonesia, tanpa harus meninggalkan ruangannya!</li></ul> <table class="mceItemTable" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody> <tr> <td width="87" height="140"> <table class="mceItemTable" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody> <tr> <td><br /></td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <p><b>A</b><b>u</b><b>t</b><b>hen</b><b>ti</b><b>ca</b><b>t</b><b>io</b><b>n</b></p> <p>Menyatakan bahwa data atau informasi yang digunakan atau diberikan oleh pengguna adalah asli milik orang tersebut, begitu juga dengan server dan sistem informasi yang diakses. Serangan pada jaringan berupa DNS Corruption atau DNS Poison, terminal palsu (spooffing), situs aspal dan palsu, user dan password palsu. Countermeasure : Digital Signature misalnya teknologi SSL/TLS untuk web dan mail server.</p> <table class="mceItemTable" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody> <tr> <td width="87" height="140"> <table class="mceItemTable" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody> <tr> <td><br /></td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <p><b>A</b><b>u</b><b>t</b><b>hor</b><b>iz</b><b>at</b><b>i</b><b>o</b><b>n atau Access C</b><b>ontro</b><b>l</b></p> <p>Pengaturan siapa dapat melakukan apa, atau dari mana menuju kemana. Dapat menggunakan mekanisme user/password atau mekanisme lainnya. Ada pembagian kelas atau tingkatan. Implementasi : pada “ACL” antar jaringan,pada “ACL” proxy server (mis. pembatasan bandwidth/delaypools).</p> <table class="mceItemTable" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody> <tr> <td width="87" height="140"> <table class="mceItemTable" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody> <tr> <td><br /></td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <p><b>P</b><b>ri</b><b>v</b><b>a</b><b>c</b><b>y</b><b>/</b><b>c</b><b>o</b><b>n</b><b>f</b><b>id</b><b>e</b><b>n</b><b>t</b><b>iality</b></p> <p>Keamanan terhadap data data pribadi,messages/pesan-pesan atau informasi lainnya yang sensitif. Serangan pada jaringan berupa aktifitas sniffing (menyadap) dan adanya keylogger. Umumnya terjadi karena kebijakan/policy yang kurang jelas.</p> <table class="mceItemTable" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody> <tr> <td width="87" height="140"> <table class="mceItemTable" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody> <tr> <td><br /></td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <p><b>I</b><b>nteg</b><b>r</b><b>i</b><b>t</b><b>y</b></p> <p>Bahwa informasi atau pesan dipastikan tidak dirubah atau berubah.Serangan pada jaringan dapat berupa aktifitas spoofing, mail modification, trojan horse, MITM Attack. Countermeasure : dengan teknologi digital signature dan Kriptografi spt PGP, 802.1x, WEP, WPA</p> <table class="mceItemTable" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody> <tr> <td width="87" height="140"> <table class="mceItemTable" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody> <tr> <td><br /></td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <p><b>A</b><b>v</b><b>a</b><b>il</b><b>ab</b><b>ilit</b><b>y</b></p> <p>Keamanan atas ketersediaan layanan informasi. Serangan pada jaringan: DoS (denial of services) baik disadari/sengaja maupun tidak. Aktifitas malware, worm, virus dan bomb mail sering memacetkan jaringan. Countermeasure : Firewall dan router filtering, backup dan redundancy, IDS danIPS</p> <table class="mceItemTable" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody> <tr> <td width="87" height="140"> <table class="mceItemTable" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody> <tr> <td><br /></td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <p><b>N</b><b>on-r</b><b>e</b><b>p</b><b>ud</b><b>i</b><b>a</b><b>ti</b><b>o</b><b>n</b></p> <p>Menjaga agar jika sudah melakukan transaksi atau aktifitas online, maka tidak dapat di sangkal.Umumnya digunakan untuk aktifitas e-commerce. Misalnya email yang digunakan untuk bertransaksi menggunakan digital signature. Pada jaringan dapat menggunakan digital signature, sertifikat dan kriptografi.</p> <table class="mceItemTable" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody> <tr> <td width="87" height="140"> <table class="mceItemTable" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody> <tr> <td><br /></td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <p><b>A</b><b>u</b><b>d</b><b>iti</b><b>n</b><b>g</b></p> <p>Adanya berkas semacam rekaman komunikasi data yang terjadi pada jaringan untuk keperluan audit seperti mengidentifikasi serangan serangan pada jaringan atau server. Implementasi : pada firewall (IDS/IPS) atau router menggunakan system logging (syslog)</p> <p><u><b>KEAMANAN JARINGAN</b></u></p> <p>Satu hal yang perlu diingat bahwa tidak ada jaringan yang anti sadap atau tidak ada jaringan komputer yang benar-benar aman. Sifat dari jaringan adalah melakukan komunikasi. Setiap komunikasi dapat jatuh ke tangan orang lain dan disalahgunakan. Sistem keamanan membantu mengamankan jaringan tanpa menghalangi penggunaannya dan menempatkan antisipasi ketika jaringan berhasil ditembus. Selain itu, pastikan bahwa user dalam jaringan memiliki pengetahuan yang cukup mengenai keamanan dan pastikan bahwa mereka menerima dan memahami rencana keamanan yang dibuat. Jika mereka tidak memahami hal tersebut, maka mereka akan menciptakan lubang (hole) keamanan pada jaringan Anda.</p> <p><b>Ada dua elemen utama pembentuk keamanan jaringan :</b></p> <ul><li>Tembok pengamanan, baik secara fisik maupun maya, yang ditaruh diantara piranti dan layanan jaringan yang digunakan dan orang-orang yang akan berbuat jahat.</li></ul> <ul><li>Rencana pengamanan, yang akan diimplementasikan bersama dengan user lainnya, untuk menjaga agar sistem tidak bisa ditembus dari luar.</li></ul> <p><u><b>Segi-segi keamanan didefinisikan </b></u></p> <p><b><u>Confidentiality</u></b></p> <p>Mensyaratkan bahwa informasi (data) hanya bisa diakses oleh pihak yang memiliki wewenang.</p> <p><b><u> Integrity</u></b></p> <p>Mensyaratkan bahwa informasi hanya dapat diubah oleh pihak yang memiliki wewenang.</p> <p><b><u>Availability</u></b></p> <p>Mensyaratkan bahwa informasi tersedia untuk pihak yang memiliki wewenang ketika dibutuhkan.</p> <p><b><u>Authentication</u></b></p> <p>Mensyaratkan bahwa pengirim suatu informasi dapat diidentifikasi dengan benar dan ada jaminan bahwa identitas yang didapat tidak palsu.</p> <p><b><u>Nonrepudiation</u></b></p> <p>Mensyaratkan bahwa baik pengirim maupun penerima informasi tidak dapat menyangkal pengiriman dan penerimaan pesan.</p> <p>Serangan (gangguan) terhadap keamanan dapat dikategorikan dalam empat kategori utama yaitu :</p> <p><b>a. Interruption</b></p> <p>Suatu aset dari suatu sistem diserang sehingga menjadi tidak tersedia atau tidak dapat dipakai oleh yang berwenang. Contohnya adalah perusakan/modifikasi terhadap piranti keras atau saluran jaringan.</p> <p><b>b. Interception</b></p> <p>Suatu pihak yang tidak berwenang mendapatkan akses pada suatu aset. Pihak yang dimaksud bisa berupa orang, program, atau sistem yang lain. Contohnya adalah penyadapan terhadap data dalam suatu jaringan.</p> <p><b>c. Modification</b></p> <p>Suatu pihak yang tidak berwenang dapat melakukan perubahan terhadap suatu aset. Contohnya adalah perubahan nilai pada file data, modifikasi program sehingga berjalan dengan tidak semestinya, dan modifikasi pesan yang sedang ditransmisikan dalam jaringan.</p> <p><b>d. Fabrication</b></p> <p>Suatu pihak yang tidak berwenang menyisipkan objek palsu ke dalam sistem.</p> <p>Contohnya adalah pengiriman pesan palsu kepada orang lain.</p> <p>Ada beberapa prinsip yang perlu dihindari dalam menangani masalah keamanan :</p> <ul><li>diam dan semua akan baik-baik saja</li></ul> <ul><li>sembunyi dan mereka tidak akan dapat menemukan anda</li></ul> <ul><li>teknologi yang digunakan kompleks/rumit, artinya aman</li></ul> <p><b><u>Kepedulian Masalah Jaringan</u></b></p> <ul><li> <b>Overview</b></li></ul> <p>Pendefinisian keamanan (pada jaringan komputer) dapat dilakukan dengan melihat target yang ingin dicapai melalui konsep 'aman'. Berikut adalah daftar fitur yang dapat mencegah/mengantisipasi serangan dari pihak luar ataupun pihak dalam.</p> <ul><li><b>Security Policy</b></li></ul> <p>Sebelum melanjutkan implementasi ke tingkat yang lebih jauh sebaiknya ditentukan dulu apa yang hendak dilindungi dan dilindungi dari siapa. Beberapa pertanyaan berikut dapat membantu penentuan kebijakan keamanan yang diambil.</p> <ol><li>Informasi apa yang dianggap rahasia atau sensitif ?</li><li>Anda melindungi sistem anda dari siapa ?</li><li>Apakah anda membutuhkan akses jarak jauh?</li><li>Apakah password dan enkripsi cukup melindungi ?</li><li>Apakah anda butuh akses internet?</li><li>Tindakan apa yang anda lakukan jika ternyata sistem anda dibobol?</li></ol> <p><b>Keamanan Secara Fisik</b></p> <p>Fisik dalam bagian ini diartikan sebagai situasi di mana seseorang dapat masuk ke dalam ruangan server/jaringan dan dapat mengakses piranti tersebut secara illegal. Orang yang tidak berkepentingan ini bisa saja seorang tamu, staf pembersih, kurir pengantar paket, dan lainnya yang dapat masuk ke ruangan tersebut dan mengutak-atik piranti yang ada. Apabila seseorang memiliki akses terhadap ruangan tersebut, orang tersebut bisa saja memasang program trojan horse di komputer, melakukan booting dari floppy disk, atau mencuri data-data penting (seperti file password) dan membongkarnya di tempat yang lebih aman.</p> <p>Untuk menjaga keamanan, taruhlah server di ruangan yang dapat dikunci dan pastikan bahwa ruangan tersebut dikunci dengan baik. Untuk menghindari pengintaian, gunakan screen-saver yang dapat dipassword. Atur juga semua komputer untuk melakukan fungsi auto-logout setelah tidak aktif dalam jangka waktu tertentu.</p> <p><u><b>BIOS Security</b></u></p> <p>Sebenarnya seorang admin direkomendasikan men-disable boot dari floppy. Atau bisa dilakukan dengan membuat password pada BIOS dan memasang boot password.</p> <p><u><b>Password Attack</b></u></p> <p>Banyak orang menyimpan informasi pentingnya pada komputer dan seringkali sebuah password hal yang mencegah orang lain untuk melihatnya. Untuk menghindari serangan password maka sebaiknya user menggunakan password yang cukup baik.</p> <p><b><u>Petunjuk pemilihan password :</u></b></p> <ul><li>Semua password harus terdiri dari paling sedikit 7 karakter.</li></ul> <ul><li>Masukkan kombinasi huruf, angka, dan tanda baca sebanyak mungkin dengan catatan bahwa password tetap mudah untuk diingat. Salah satu caranya adalah mengkombinasikan kata-kata acak dengan tanda baca atau dengan mengkombinasikan kata-kata dengan angka. Contoh : rasa#melon@manis, komputer0digital1, kurang<lebih>2001</li></ul> <ul><li>Gunakan huruf pertama frasa yang gampang diingat. Contoh: dilarang parkir antara pukul 7 pagi hingga pukul 8 sore à dpap7php8s, tidak ada sistem yang benar-benar aman dalam konteks jaringan à tasybbadkj</li></ul> <ul><li>Gunakan angka atau tanda baca untuk menggantikan huruf di password. Contoh : keberhasilan à k3b3rh45!l4n</li></ul> <ul><li>Gantilah password secara teratur</li></ul> <p><b><u>Malicious Code</u></b></p> <p>Malicious code bisa berupa virus, trojan atau worm, biasanya berupa kode instruksi yang akan memberatkan sistem sehingga performansi sistem menurun.</p> <p><u><b>Cara mengantisipasinya</b></u> :</p> <ul><li>berikan kesadaran pada user tentang ancaman virus.</li></ul> <ul><li>gunakan program anti virus yang baik pada workstation, server dan gateway internet (jika punya).</li></ul> <ul><li>ajarkan dan latih user cara menggunakan program anti virus</li></ul> <ul><li>sebagai admin sebaiknya selalu mengupdate program anti-virus dan database virus</li></ul> <ul><li>Biasakan para user untuk TIDAK membuka file attachment email atau file apapun dari floppy sebelum 110 % yakin atau tidak attachment/file tsb “bersih”.</li></ul> <ul><li>Pastikan kebijakan kemanan anda up to date.</li></ul> <p><u><b>Sniffer</b></u></p> <p>Sniffer adalah sebuah device penyadapan komunikasi jaringan komputer dengan memanfaatkan mode premicious pada ethernet. Karena jaringan komunikasi komputer terdiri dari data biner acak maka sniffer ini biasanya memiliki penganalisis protokol sehingga data biner acak dapat dipecahkan. Fungsi sniffer bagi pengelola bisa untuk pemeliharaan jaringan, bagi orang luar bisa untuk menjebol sistem. Cara paling mudah untuk mengantisipasi Sniffer adalah menggunakan aplikasi yang secure, misal : ssh, ssl, secureftp dan lain-lain</p> <p><u><b>Scanner</b></u></p> <p>Layanan jaringan (network service) yang berbeda berjalan pada port yang berbeda juga. Tiap layanan jaringan berjalan pada alamat jaringan tertentu (mis. 167.205.48.130) dan mendengarkan (listening) pada satu atau lebih port (antara 0 hingga 65535). Keduanya membentuk apa yang dinamakan socket address yang mengidentifikasikan secara unik suatu layanan dalam jaringan. Port 0 hingga 1023 yang paling umum dipergunakan didefinisikan sebagai well-known number dalam konvensi UNIX dan dideskripsikan dalam RFC 1700.</p> <p>Port Scanner merupakan program yang didesain untuk menemukan layanan (service) apa saja yang dijalankan pada host jaringan. Untuk mendapatkan akses ke host, cracker harus mengetahui titik-titik kelemahan yang ada. Sebagai contoh, apabila cracker sudah mengetahui bahwa host menjalankan proses ftp server, ia dapat menggunakan kelemahan-kelemahan yang ada pada ftp server untuk mendapatkan akses. Dari bagian ini kita dapat mengambil kesimpulan bahwa layanan yang tidak benar-benar diperlukan sebaiknya dihilangkan untuk memperkecil resiko keamanan yang mungkin terjadi.</p> <p>Mirip dengan port scanner pada bagian sebelumnya, network scanner memberikan informasi mengenai sasaran yang dituju, misalnya saja sistem operasi yang dipergunakan, layanan jaringan yang aktif, jenis mesin yang terhubung ke network, serta konfigurasi jaringan. Terkadang, network scanner juga mengintegrasikan port scanner dalam aplikasinya. Tool ini berguna untuk mencari informasi mengenai target sebanyak mungkin sebelum melakukan serangan yang sebenarnya. Dengan mengetahui kondisi dan konfigurasi jaringan, seseorang akan lebih mudah masuk dan merusak sistem. Contoh scanner : Nmap, Netcat, NetScan Tools Pro 2000, SuperScan</p> <p><u><b>Spoofing</b></u></p> <p>Spoofing (penyamaran) biasa dilakukan oleh pihak yang tidak bertanggungjawab untuk menggunakan fasilitas dan resource sistem. Spoofing adalah teknik melakukan penyamaran sehingga terdeteksi sebagai identitas yang bukan sebenarnya, misal : menyamar sebagai IP tertentu, nama komputer bahkan e-mail address tertentu. Antisipasinya dapat dilakukan dengan menggunakan aplikasi firewall.</p> <p><b><u>Denial of Service</u></b></p> <p>Denial of Service (DoS) merupakan serangan dimana suatu pihak mengekploitasi aspek dari suite Internet Protocol untuk menghalangi akses pihak yang berhak atas informasi atau sistem yang diserang. Hole yang memungkinkan DoS berada dalam kategori C, yang berada dalam prioritas rendah. Serangan ini biasanya didasarkan pada sistem operasi yang dipergunakan. Artinya, hole ini berada di dalam bagian jaringan dari sistem operasi itu sendiri. Ketika hole macam ini muncul, hole ini harus diperbaiki oleh pemilik software tersebut atau di-patch oleh vendor yang mengeluarkan sistem operasi tersebut. Contoh dari serangan ini adalah TCP SYN dimana permintaan koneksi jaringan dikirimkan ke server dalam jumlah yang sangat besar. Akibatnya server dibanjiri permintaan koneksi dan menjadi lambat atau bahkan tidak dapat dicapai sama sekali. Hole ini terdapat nyaris di semua sistem operasi yang menjalankan TCP/IP untuk berkomunikasi di internet. Hal ini tampaknya menjadi masalah yang terdapat di dalam desain suite TCP/IP, dan merupakan sesuatu yang tidak mudah diselesaikan.</p> <p>Dalam serangan DoS, sesorang dapat melakukan sesuatu yang mengganggu kinerja dan operasi jaringan atau server. Akibat dari serangan ini adalah lambatnya server atau jaringan dalam merespons, atau bahkan bisa menyebabkan crash. Serangan DoS mengganggu user yang sah untuk mendapatkan layanan yang sah, namun tidak memungkinkan cracker masuk ke dalam sistem jaringan yang ada. Namun, serangan semacam ini terhadap server yang menangani kegiatan e-commerce akan dapat berakibat kerugian dalam bentuk finansial.</p> <p><u><b>Enkripsi Untuk Keamanan Data Pada Jaringan</b></u></p> <p>Salah satu hal yang penting dalam komunikasi menggunakan computer untuk menjamin kerahasian data adalah enkripsi. Enkripsi dalah sebuah proses yang melakukan perubahan sebuah kode dari yang bisa dimengerti menjadi sebuah kode yang tidak bisa dimengerti (tidak terbaca). Enkripsi dapat diartikan sebagai kode atau chiper. Sebuah sistem pengkodean menggunakan suatu table atau kamus yang telah didefinisikan untuk mengganti kata dari informasi atau yang merupakan bagian dari informasi yang dikirim. Sebuah chiper menggunakan suatu algoritma yang dapat mengkodekan semua aliran data (stream) bit dari sebuah pesan menjadi cryptogram yang tidak dimengerti (unitelligible). Karena teknik cipher merupakan suatu sistem yang telah siap untuk di automasi, maka teknik ini digunakan dalam sistem keamanan komputer dan network.</p> <p>Pada bagian selanjutnya membahas berbagai macam teknik enkripsi yang biasa digunakan dalam sistem sekuriti dari sistem komputer dan network.</p> <p><u><b>A. Enkripsi Konvensional.</b></u></p> <p>Proses enkripsi ini dapat digambarkan sebagai berikut :</p> <p>Plain teks -> Algoritma Enkripsi -> Cipher teks ->Algoritma Dekrispsi -> Plain teks<br />User A | | User B<br />|----------------------Kunci (Key) --------------------|</p> <p>Gambar 1</p> <p>Informasi asal yang dapat di mengerti di simbolkan oleh Plain teks, yang kemudian oleh algoritma Enkripsi diterjemahkan menjadi informasi yang tidak dapat untuk dimengerti yang disimbolkan dengan cipher teks. Proses enkripsi terdiri dari dua yaitu algoritma dan kunci. Kunci biasanya merupakan suatu string bit yang pendek yang mengontrol algoritma. Algoritma enkripsi akan menghasilkan hasil yang berbeda tergantung pada kunci yang digunakan. Mengubah kunci dari enkripsi akan mengubah output dari algortima enkripsi.</p> <p>Sekali cipher teks telah dihasilkan, kemudian ditransmisikan. Pada bagian penerima selanjutnya cipher teks yang diterima diubah kembali ke plain teks dengan algoritma dan dan kunci yang sama.</p> <p>Keamanan dari enkripsi konvensional bergantung pada beberapa faktor. Pertama algoritma enkripsi harus cukup kuat sehingga menjadikan sangat sulit untuk mendekripsi cipher teks dengan dasar cipher teks tersebut. Lebih jauh dari itu keamanan dari algoritma enkripsi konvensional bergantung pada kerahasian dari kuncinya bukan algoritmanya. Yaitu dengan asumsi bahwa adalah sangat tidak praktis untuk mendekripsikan informasi dengan dasar cipher teks dan pengetahuan tentang algoritma diskripsi / enkripsi. Atau dengan kata lain, kita tidak perlu menjaga kerahasiaan dari algoritma tetapi cukup dengan kerahasiaan kuncinya.</p> <p>Manfaat dari konvensional enkripsi algoritma adalah kemudahan dalam penggunaan secara luas. Dengan kenyataan bahwa algoritma ini tidak perlu dijaga kerahasiaannya dengan maksud bahwa pembuat dapat dan mampu membuat suatu implementasi dalam bentuk chip dengan harga yang murah. Chips ini dapat tersedia secara luas dan disediakan pula untuk beberapa jenis produk. Dengan penggunaan dari enkripsi konvensional, prinsip keamanan adalah menjadi menjaga keamanan dari kunci.</p> <p>Model enkripsi yang digunakan secara luas adalah model yang didasarkan pada data encrytion standard (DES), yang diambil oleh Biro standart nasional US pada tahun 1977. Untuk DES data di enkripsi dalam 64 bit block dengan menggunakan 56 bit kunci. Dengan menggunakan kunci ini, 64 data input diubah dengan suatu urutan dari metode menjadi 64 bit output. Proses yang yang sama dengan kunci yang sama digunakan untuk mengubah kembali enkripsi.</p> <p><b><u>B. Enkripsi Public-Key</u></b></p> <p>Salah satu yang menjadi kesulitan utama dari enkripsi konvensional adalah perlunya untuk mendistribusikan kunci yang digunakan dalam keadaan aman. Sebuah cara yang tepat telah diketemukan untuk mengatasi kelemahan ini dengan suatu model enkripsi yang secara mengejutkan tidak memerlukan sebuah kunci untuk didistribusikan. Metode ini dikenal dengan nama enkripsi public-key dan pertama kali diperkenalkan pada tahun 1976.</p> <p>Plain teks -> Algoritma Enkripsi -> Cipher teks -> Algoritma Dekrispsi -> Plain teks<br />User A | | User B<br />Private Key B ----|<br />|----------------------Kunci (Key) --------------------|<br />Gambar 2</p> <p>Algoritma tersebut seperti yang digambarkan pada gambar diatas. Untuk enkripsi konvensional, kunci yang digunakan pada prosen enkripsi dan dekripsi adalah sama. Tetapi ini bukanlah kondisi sesungguhnya yang diperlukan. Namun adalah dimungkinkan untuk membangun suatu algoritma yang menggunakan satu kunci untuk enkripsi dan pasangannya, kunci yang berbeda, untuk dekripsi. Lebih jauh lagi adalah mungkin untuk menciptakan suatu algoritma yang mana pengetahuan tentang algoritma enkripsi ditambah kunci enkripsi tidak cukup untuk menentukan kunci dekrispi. Sehingga teknik berikut ini akan dapat dilakukan :</p> <p>Masing - masing dari sistem dalam network akan menciptakan sepasang kunci yang digunakan untuk enkripsi dan dekripsi dari informasi yang diterima.</p> <p>Masing - masing dari sistem akan menerbitkan kunci enkripsinya ( public key ) dengan memasang dalam register umum atau file, sedang pasangannya tetap dijaga sebagai kunci pribadi ( private key ).</p> <p>Jika A ingin mengisim pesan kepada B, maka A akan mengenkripsi pesannya dengan kunci publik dari B.</p> <p>Ketika B menerima pesan dari A maka B akan menggunakan kunci privatenya untuk mendeskripsi pesan dari A.</p> <p>Seperti yang kita lihat, public-key memecahkan masalah pendistribusian karena tidak diperlukan suatu kunci untuk didistribusikan. Semua partisipan mempunyai akses ke kunci publik ( public key ) dan kunci pribadi dihasilkan secara lokal oleh setiap partisipan sehingga tidak perlu untuk didistribusikan. Selama sistem mengontrol masing - masing private key dengan baik maka komunikasi menjadi komunikasi yang aman. Setiap sistem mengubah private key pasangannya public key akan menggantikan public key yang lama. Yang menjadi kelemahan dari metode enkripsi publik key adalah jika dibandingkan dengan metode enkripsi konvensional algoritma enkripsi ini mempunyai algoritma yang lebih komplek. Sehingga untuk perbandingan ukuran dan harga dari hardware, metode publik key akan menghasilkan performance yang lebih rendah. Tabel berikut ini akan memperlihatkan berbagai aspek penting dari enkripsi konvensional dan public key.</p> <p><b><u>Enkripsi Konvensional Yang dibutuhkan untuk bekerja :</u></b></p> <ul><li>Algoritma yang sama dengan kunci yang sama dapat digunakan untuk proses dekripsi - enkripsi.</li></ul> <ul><li>Pengirim dan penerima harus membagi algoritma dan kunci yang sama.</li></ul> <p><b><u>Yang dibutuhkan untuk keamanan :</u></b></p> <ul><li>Kunci harus dirahasiakan.</li></ul> <p>Adalah tidak mungkin atau sangat tidak praktis untuk menerjemahkan informasi yang telah dienkripsi.Pengetahuan tentang algoritma dan sample dari kata yang terenkripsi tidak mencukupi untu menentukan kunci.</p> <p><b><u>Enkripsi Public Key Yang dibutuhkan untuk bekerja :</u></b></p> <ul><li>Algoritma yang digunakan untuk enkripsi dan dekripsi dengan sepasang kunci, satu untuk enkripsi satu untuk dekripsi.</li></ul> <ul><li>Pengirim dan penerima harus mempunyai sepasang kunci yang cocok.</li></ul> <p><b><u>Yang dibutuhkan untuk keamanan :</u></b></p> <ul><li>Salah satu dari kunci harus dirahasiakan.</li></ul> <p>Adalah tidak mungkin atau sangat tidak praktis untuk menerjemahkan informasi yang telah dienkripsi.</p> <ul><li>Pengetahuan tentang algoritma dan sample dari kata yang terenkripsi tidak mencukupi untu menentukan kunci.</li></ul>Welcome To The Gie Iceman Zonehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08467823729991553473noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5716048184387339703.post-75416051805615376222009-11-08T14:03:00.001-08:002009-11-08T14:04:03.761-08:00URUTAN TENSES<p>Urutan Tense adalah sbb:</p> <ol><li>Simple</li><li>Continuous</li><li>Perfect</li><li>Perfect Continuous</li></ol> <p>Rumus Umum Tense adalah:</p> <ol><li>Present : Kata Kerja Bentuk I</li><li>Past: Kata kerja Bentuk II</li><li>Perfect : Kata Kerja Bentuk III, namun di depannya pasti ada have, has, atau had</li><li>Future : Kata Kerja Bentuk I, namun di depannya pasti ada will/shall, would/should</li><li>Continuous : Kata Kerja bentuk I ditambah ing. Namun, di depannya pasti ada to be; is, am, are, was, were, be, atau been</li></ol> <p>Tense Secara Umum adalah sbb:</p> <table style="height: 170px;" width="457" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" height="170"> <tbody> <tr> <td width="254"><b>Present</b></td> <td width="254"><b>Past</b></td> </tr> <tr> <td>1. Present <b>Simple </b>Tense<br />2. Present <b>Continuous </b>Tense<br />3. Present <b>Perfect </b>Tense<br />4. Present <b>Perfect Continuous </b>Tense</td> <td>1. Past <b>Simple </b>Tense<br />2. Past <b>Continuous </b>Tense<br />3. Past <b>Perfect </b>Tense<br />4. Past <b>Perfect Continuous </b>Tense</td> </tr> <tr> <td><b>Future</b></td> <td><b>Past Future </b></td> </tr> <tr> <td>1. Future <b>Simple </b>Tense<br />2. Future <b>Continuous </b>Tense<br />3. Future <b>Perfect </b>Tense<br />4. Future <b>Perfect Continuous </b>Tense</td> <td>1. Past Future <b>Simple </b>Tense<br />2. Past Future <b>Continuous </b>Tense<br />3. Past Future <b>Perfect </b>Tense<br />4. Past Future <b>Perfect Continuous </b>Tense</td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <p>Rumus Umum Tense adalah sbb:</p> <table style="height: 422px;" width="457" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" height="422"> <tbody> <tr> <td width="14"><b>No</b></td> <td width="229"><b>Tenses</b></td> <td width="255"><b>Rumus</b></td> </tr> <tr> <td>1</td> <td>Present <b>Simple </b>Tense</td> <td>S + V1 + dll</td> </tr> <tr> <td>2</td> <td>Present <b>Continuous </b>Tense</td> <td>S + is, am, are + V-ing + dll</td> </tr> <tr> <td>3</td> <td>Present <b>Perfect </b>Tense</td> <td>S + have,has + V3 + dll</td> </tr> <tr> <td>4</td> <td>Present <b>Perfect Continuous </b>Tense</td> <td>S + have, has + been + V-ing + dll</td> </tr> <tr> <td>5</td> <td>Past <b>Simple </b>Tense</td> <td>S + V2 + dll</td> </tr> <tr> <td>6</td> <td>Past <b>Continuous </b>Tense</td> <td>S + was, were + V-ing + dll</td> </tr> <tr> <td>7</td> <td>Past <b>Perfect </b>Tense</td> <td>S + had + V3 + dll</td> </tr> <tr> <td>8</td> <td>Past <b>Perfect Continuous </b>Tense</td> <td>S + had + been + V-ing + dll</td> </tr> <tr> <td>9</td> <td>Future <b>Simple </b>Tense</td> <td>S + will + V1 + dll</td> </tr> <tr> <td>10</td> <td>Future <b>Continuous </b>Tense</td> <td>S + will + be + V-ing + dll</td> </tr> <tr> <td>11</td> <td>Future <b>Perfect </b>Tense</td> <td>S + will + have + V3 + dll</td> </tr> <tr> <td>12</td> <td>Future <b>Perfect Continuous </b>Tense</td> <td>S + will + have + been + V-ing + dll</td> </tr> <tr> <td>13</td> <td>Past Future <b>Simple </b>Tense</td> <td>S + would + V1 + dll</td> </tr> <tr> <td>14</td> <td>Past Future <b>Continuous </b>Tense</td> <td>S + would + be + V-ing + dll</td> </tr> <tr> <td>15</td> <td>Past Future <b>Perfect </b>Tense</td> <td>S + would + have + V3 + dll</td> </tr> <tr> <td>16</td> <td>Past Future <b>Perfect Continuous </b>Tense</td> <td>S + would + have + been + V-ing + dll</td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <p>Berikut ini contoh Tense dalam kalimat:</p> <table style="height: 422px;" width="456" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" height="422"> <tbody> <tr> <td width="14"><b>No</b></td> <td width="229"><b>Tenses</b></td> <td width="255"><b>Contoh</b></td> </tr> <tr> <td>1</td> <td>Present <b>Simple </b>Tense</td> <td>I study English</td> </tr> <tr> <td>2</td> <td>Present <b>Continuous </b>Tense</td> <td>I am studying English</td> </tr> <tr> <td>3</td> <td>Present <b>Perfect </b>Tense</td> <td>I have studied English</td> </tr> <tr> <td>4</td> <td>Present <b>Perfect Continuous </b>Tense</td> <td>I have been studying English</td> </tr> <tr> <td>5</td> <td>Past <b>Simple </b>Tense</td> <td>I studied English</td> </tr> <tr> <td>6</td> <td>Past <b>Continuous </b>Tense</td> <td>I was studying English</td> </tr> <tr> <td>7</td> <td>Past <b>Perfect </b>Tense</td> <td>I had studied English</td> </tr> <tr> <td>8</td> <td>Past <b>Perfect Continuous </b>Tense</td> <td>I had been studying English</td> </tr> <tr> <td>9</td> <td>Future <b>Simple </b>Tense</td> <td>I will study English</td> </tr> <tr> <td>10</td> <td>Future <b>Continuous </b>Tense</td> <td>I will be studying English</td> </tr> <tr> <td>11</td> <td>Future <b>Perfect </b>Tense</td> <td>I will have studied English</td> </tr> <tr> <td>12</td> <td>Future <b>Perfect Continuous </b>Tense</td> <td>I will have been studying English</td> </tr> <tr> <td>13</td> <td>Past Future <b>Simple </b>Tense</td> <td>I would study English</td> </tr> <tr> <td>14</td> <td>Past Future <b>Continuous </b>Tense</td> <td>I would be studying English</td> </tr> <tr> <td>15</td> <td>Past Future <b>Perfect </b>Tense</td> <td>I would have studied English</td> </tr> <tr> <td>16</td> <td>Past Future <b>Perfect Continuous </b>Tense</td> <td>I would have been studying English</td> </tr> </tbody> </table>Welcome To The Gie Iceman Zonehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08467823729991553473noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5716048184387339703.post-59792120569976097772009-11-08T14:02:00.000-08:002009-11-08T14:03:16.803-08:00PAST PERFECT<h2>Past Perfect Tense</h2> <p>Past Perfect Tense mirip dengan Present Perfect Tense hanya saja beda di waktunya saja. Penekannya pada PERFECT-nya itu, usainya itu. Agar lebih jelas saya ulang sedikit tentang Present Perfect Tense dulu ya.</p> <p>PRESENT Perfect Tense mengenai suatu kejadian atau peristiwa yang SELESAI (sempurna, perfect) saat ini, contohnya: She has just gone (Dia baru saja pergi).</p> <p>Nah PAST Perfect Tense adalah bentuk lampau (Past) dari Present Perfect Tense itu, makanya disebut Past Perfect Tense, sama-sama Perfectnya! Jelas ya? Kalau Present Perfect Tense menggunakan rumus <i>S + Have/has + V3</i> maka Past Perfect Tense menggunakan bentuk lampau dari Has/has yaitu “HAD”.</p> <pre><b>Rumus Past Perfect Tense</b><br /><b>Positif: S + had + V3</b><br /><b>Negatif: S + had + not + V3</b><br /><b>Tanya: Had + S + V3</b></pre> <p>Past Perfect Tense sering digunakan dengan menggunakan kalimat lain yang berbentuk lampau ( Past Tense) yang dihubungan dengan kata sambung seperti When (ketika), After (setelah) untuk menekankan bahwa Perfectnya (Sudahnya) itu adalah di masa lampau.</p> <p>Contoh kejadiannya seperti ini:</p> <p>“Kemarin Dia berangkat ke rumahku pagi-pagi bener, tetapi waktu ia sampai eh saya SUDAH pergi”. Tuh, lihatlah SUDAH perginya itu kan Perfect. Anda ingat pelajaran tentang Present Perfect Tense bahwa SUDAH itu adalah ciri-cirinya. Hanya saja SUDAH nya itu adalah kemarin (lampau). Itulah mengapa dalam kejadian ini kita menggunakan Past Perfect Tense.</p> <p>Contoh kalimatnya:<br />-I had gone When He arrived at my home</p> <p>“I had gone” adalah Past Perfect Tense, dengan subjectnya adalah I. Lihat ada “had” nya, dan kata kerja bentuk ketiganya (V3) adalah gone. Sesuai rumusnya <i>S + had + V3</i>. Kalimat pembandingnya adalah bentuk past tense: “When He arrived at my home”.</p> <p>Contoh kalimat lainnya:<br />I had written 3 articles when you visited my blog for the first time.</p> <p>Jadi Past Perfect Tense adalah tentang “Sudah, masa lalu”. Present Perfect Tense tentang “Sudah, kini”. Rumusnya mirip, karena sama-sama Perfect. Setiap Perfect pasti pakai kata kerja bentuk ke-3 baik itu pada Kata Kerja utamanya atau pada kata kerja bantu-nya.</p> <p>Contoh kalimat lain dalam Past Perfect Tense:<br />-I had studied hard but I didn’t make good result in the exam.<br />-You had told me twice before I understood.</p> <h2>Past Perfect Tense Dalam Kalimat Negatif</h2> <p>tinggal tambah NO setelah HAD. Contoh berikut telah disederhanakan:<br />- I had not studied hard, so I didn’t make good result<br />-You had not told me that, that’s why I didn’t understand</p> <h2>Past Perfect Tense Dalam Kalimat Tanya</h2> <p>Tinggal dibalik, Had nya di depan.<br />Rumusnya kan: Had + S + V3</p> <p>-Had You studied hard bla bla bla?<br />-Had You told me …?</p> <h3>Past Perfect Structure :</h3> <p><b>Positive</b></p> <p>Subject + had + past participle</p> <p>I, You, He, She, We, They had finished before I arrived.</p> <p><b>Negative</b></p> <p>Subject + had + not (hadn't) + past participle</p> <p>I, You, He, She, We, They hadn't eaten before he finished the job.</p> <p><b>Questions</b></p> <p>Question word + had + subject + past participle</p> <p>What -> had he, she, you, we, they thought before I asked the question?</p> <p><b>PAST PERFECT</b></p> <p><b>Past perfect, form<br /></b>The Past Perfect tense in English is composed of two parts: the past tense of the verb <i>to have (had) </i>+ the past participle of the main verb.</p> <table class="mceItemTable" width="85%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody> <tr> <td width="33%" valign="top"><b>Subject</b></td> <td width="33%" valign="top"><b>had </b></td> <td width="33%" valign="top"><b>past participle </b></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="33%" valign="top">We</td> <td width="33%" valign="top">had</td> <td width="33%" valign="top">decided...</td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <table class="mceItemTable" width="85%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody> <tr> <td width="33%" valign="top"><b>Affirmative</b></td> <td width="33%" valign="top"><br /></td> <td width="33%" valign="top"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="33%" valign="top">She</td> <td width="33%" valign="top">had</td> <td width="33%" valign="top">given.</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="33%" valign="top"><b>Negative</b></td> <td width="33%" valign="top"><br /></td> <td width="33%" valign="top"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="33%" valign="top">We</td> <td width="33%" valign="top">hadn't</td> <td width="33%" valign="top">asked.</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="33%" valign="top"><b>Interrogative</b></td> <td width="33%" valign="top"><br /></td> <td width="33%" valign="top"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="33%" valign="top">Had</td> <td width="33%" valign="top">they</td> <td width="33%" valign="top">arrived?</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="3" width="99%" valign="top"><b>Interrogative negative</b></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="33%" valign="top">Hadn't</td> <td width="33%" valign="top">you</td> <td width="33%" valign="top">finished?</td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <p>Example:<i> <b>to decide,</b></i><b> Past perfect</b></p> <table class="mceItemTable" width="85%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody> <tr> <td width="37%" valign="top"><b>Affirmative</b></td> <td width="33%" valign="top"><b>Negative </b></td> <td width="30%" valign="top"><b>Interrogative </b></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="37%" valign="top"><b>I</b> had decided</td> <td width="33%" valign="top">I hadn't decided</td> <td width="30%" valign="top">Had I decided?</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="37%" valign="top"><b>You</b> had decided</td> <td width="33%" valign="top">You hadn't decided</td> <td width="30%" valign="top">Had you decided?</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="37%" valign="top"><b>He, she, it</b> had decided</td> <td width="33%" valign="top">He hadn't decided</td> <td width="30%" valign="top">Had she decided?</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="37%" valign="top"><b>We</b> had decided</td> <td width="33%" valign="top">We hadn't decided</td> <td width="30%" valign="top">Had we decided?</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="37%" valign="top"><b>You</b> had decided</td> <td width="33%" valign="top">You hadn't decided</td> <td width="30%" valign="top">Had you decided?</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"><b>They</b> had decided</td> <td valign="top">They hadn't decided</td> <td valign="top">Had they decided?</td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <p><b>Past perfect, function<u><br /></u></b>The past perfect refers to a time <b><i>earlier than</i></b> before now. It is used to make it clear that one event happened before another in the past. It does not matter which event is mentioned first - the tense makes it clear which one happened first.</p> <p>In these examples, Event A is the first or earliest event, Event B is the second or latest event:</p> <table width="85%" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody> <tr> <td rowspan="2" width="8%"><b>a.</b></td> <td width="43%" valign="top">John <b><i>had gone</i></b> out</td> <td width="49%" valign="top">when I arrived in the office.</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="43%" valign="top"><b>Event A</b></td> <td width="49%" valign="top"><b>Event B </b></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2" width="8%"><b>b.</b></td> <td width="43%" valign="top">I <b><i>had saved</i></b> my document</td> <td width="49%" valign="top">before the computer crashed.</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="43%" valign="top"><b>Event A</b></td> <td width="49%" valign="top"><b>Event B </b></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2" width="8%"><b>c.</b></td> <td width="43%" valign="top">When they arrived</td> <td width="49%" valign="top">we<b> <i>had already started</i></b> cooking</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="43%" valign="top"><b>Event B </b></td> <td width="49%" valign="top"><b>Event A</b></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2" width="8%"><b>d.</b></td> <td width="43%" valign="top">He was very tired</td> <td width="49%" valign="top">because he <b><i>hadn't slept</i></b> well.</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="43%" valign="top"><b>Event B </b></td> <td width="49%" valign="top"><b>Event A</b></td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <p><b>Past perfect +<i> just<br />'Just'</i></b> is used with the past perfect to refer to an event that was only a short time earlier than before now, e.g.</p> <p>a. The train<b> <i>had just left</i></b> when I arrived at the station.<br />b. She <b><i>had just left</i></b> the room when the police arrived.<br />c. I <b><i>had just put</i></b> the washing out when it started to rain.</p>Welcome To The Gie Iceman Zonehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08467823729991553473noreply@blogger.com0